The Turbulent Sixties

1. 30 The Turbulent Sixties

2. Kennedy Intensifies the Cold War • 1960 election – Kennedy vs. Nixon – first televised debate – critical to Kennedy’s victory • Domestic program – New Frontier • Priority was foreign policy • John F. Kennedy a “Cold Warrior” • Kennedy supported U.S. hard line against Russia

3. Flexible Response • Balance nuclear with conventional • Arms buildup: • Conventional armed forces • The nuclear arsenal • Special Forces • U.S. strength tempted new administration to challenge U.S.S.R.

4. Crisis Over Berlin • 1961: Khrushchev renews threat to kick America out of Berlin Germany • Kennedy’s response • Announce crisis on nationwide television • Call up the National Guard • Soviets built Berlin Wall • Wall meant to keep East Germans from migrating to the West

5. Containment in Southeast Asia • Kennedy saw Southeast Asia as focus of U.S.-Soviet rivalry • Supported Saigon’s Diem regime • Increased American military “advisors” and money to Vietnam • November, 1963: Coup against Diem • Kennedy accepted • Coup further destabilized South Vietnam • U.S. involvement in Vietnam deepened

6. Containing Castro:The Bay of Pigs Fiasco • Kennedy supported “anti-Castro forces in exile” to thwart the aims of the Soviet Union and overthrow Fidal Castro • Bay of Pigs invasion a part of 1960 CIA plan under Eisenhower

7. Containing Castro:The Bay of Pigs Fiasco • 1961: Invasion of Cuba • 1,400 Cuban exiles land without expected U.S. air support • Defeated within 48 hours • Kennedy took responsibility for disaster in defiant speech against “communist penetration”

8. Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis • 1962: Russian nuclear missiles confirmed in Cuba • Blockade Cuba to prevent more missiles from coming into Cuba • Threaten nuclear confrontation to force removal of missiles already there • World appears to be on the brink of nuclear war

9. Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis • Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in exchange for public statement that U.S. would not invade Cuba • Private assurance that U.S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed

10. Containing Castro:The Cuban Missile Crisis • Political and diplomatic effects • Kennedy matures/increase in popularity • Negotiations regarding nuclear testing • Russians begin naval, nuclear buildup • Soviet-American hotline set up • Belief hard line with Soviets is justified • Cold war escalates

11. The New Frontier at Home • Kennedy staff competent, activist • Seeks legislative and economic reform • JFK the administration’s greatest asset • Most controversial Cabinet appointment – Robert Kennedy – Attorney General

12. The Congressional Obstacle • Southern Democrat-Republican coalition control Congress • Coalition blocks far-reaching reform • Kennedy’s greatest domestic obstacle was Congress

13. Economic Advance • Economic stimulation • Increase space and defense spending • Informal wage and price guidelines • 1963: Tax cut causes one of the longest sustained advances in U.S. history • Kennedy’s economic policies double growth, cut unemployment

14. Moving Slowly on Civil Rights • Downplays civil rights legislation to avoid alienating Southern Democrats • 1961: Federal marshals sent to protect Birmingham freedom riders • 1962: National Guard sent to University of Mississippi • 1963: Deputy Attorney General faced down George Wallace at University of Alabama

15. “I Have a Dream” • 1963: Violent police suppression of nonviolent protestors in Birmingham • Kennedy intervenes on side of blacks • Congress asks for civil rights laws • 1963: MLK leads march on Washington • Kennedy’s civil rights record disappointing to supporters

16. “Let Us Continue” • November 22, 1963: Lee Harvey Oswald assassinates JFK • VP Lyndon Johnson becomes President • Lyndon Johnson continues Kennedy’s programs • Johnson ultimately exceeds Kennedy’s record on economic and civil rights bills

17. Johnson in Action • Johnson not polished like Kennedy • Most influential Senate majority leader • Knowledge of legislative process is greatest asset • Known for giving the “Johnson treatment” • 1964: Kennedy’s tax cut passed and resulted in a sustained economic boom

18. Johnson in Action • Civil Rights Act • Banned public segregation • Established Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to lessen job discrimination • Protected voting rights of African Americans • Amended to include women

19. The Election of 1964 • 1964: Johnson launched “war on poverty” • Programs include Head Start, Job Corps, Community Action Programs • Encourage self-help • Reduce poverty by about ten million • Johnson wins election by landslide

20. The Triumph of Reform • 1965: Johnson’s Great Society program advances beyond New Deal • Medicare for the elderly • Medicaid for poor • Elementary and Secondary Education Act • Voting Rights Act gives dramatic increase in African American voting registration in the South – bans literacy tests

21. African American Voter Registration Before and After Passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1964

22. Johnson Escalates the Vietnam War • Johnson continues Kennedy’s foreign policy • Inherited policy of containment – shared cold war assumptions and convictions • Determined not to “lose” South Vietnam to the Communists in North Vietnam • Eventually, Johnson’s obsession with Vietnam causes his downfall

23. The Vietnam Dilemma • After assassination of Diem, South Vietnam on the verge of collapse • Johnson continues economic aid and military advisers – also authorizes covert actions • 1964: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gives Johnson authority to defend South Vietnam • Johnson proves to enemies that he will take tough stance in Vietnam • In long run – costly victory because Congress felt mislead

24. Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War

25. Escalation • Communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, organized Viet Minh in North to free Vietnam from France/America • Communist organize army in South Vietnam called Vietcong • U.S. increases air attacks on North Vietnam • 1968, 500,000 American troops in Vietnam • Johnson worries about consequences of either withdrawing or invasion of North • War ends up in bloody stalemate

26. Stalemate • U.S. counted on massive firepower especially air strikes which were largely ineffective • Air strikes to destroy supply lines not successful • Few industrial sites in Vietnam to bomb • Afraid to bomb certain supply ports because China and/or Russia might enter war • Americans back home gradually turn against the war

27. U.S. Troop Levels in Vietnam (as of Dec. 31 Each Year)

28. Years of Turmoil • Tet Offensive – Vietcong launch surprise attack on cities in the South • Tet Offensive - turning point for U.S. – major political victory for Northern Communists • Shocks Americans back home • Johnson blamed and opens peace talks • Johnson does not seek another term

29. The Student Revolt • 1964: Student protest movement launched at Berkeley • Challenged older generation’s materialism • Main issue of protest - Vietnam War • Widespread cultural uprising

30. Protesting the Vietnam War • 1967: 100,000 protesters besiege the Pentagon • 1968 – students seize 5 buildings at Columbia University for eight days • Demonstrations suppressed by a combination of negotiation and force

31. The Cultural Revolution • Rejection of older values through: • Sexual expression • Clothing • Drugs • Music • Some extremism provokes outrage • Serious challenge to hypocrisy of American society

32. The Return of Richard Nixon • 1968: Presidential election - A year of turmoil • Turning point in the Vietnam War • Massive protests in the streets • Richard Nixon wins election by narrow margin • Has plan to end Vietnam war

33. The Democrats Divide • 1968 Democratic convention in Chicago besieged by antiwar protestors • Democrats wounded in public opinion • Failure to win war but won’t withdraw

34. The End of an Era • Election of 1968 ended 30-year era of liberal reform, activist foreign policy • Americans sought less intrusive government • Vietnam war ended policy of containment