Argumentation

1. Argumentation Argument Types and Fallacies

2. Richard Weaver’s Argument Types • Definition – unchanging qualities or essences; platonic ideal • Ex: The nature of justice, or beauty, or freedom • (Lincoln: human nature) • Analysis: How well are the qualities described? • Similitude – analogy, metaphor, or causation • Ex (analogy): The US “addiction” to oil • Ex (causation): Increase in vaccination rates led to an increase in autism • (common in law, ethics, and (sometimes) politics) • Analysis: How accurate and relevant are similarities? or: Do these correlations prove causation? • Circumstance – facts, evidence at hand • Ex: X got them a good result; we should do the same • (needle exchange programs, condoms in schools, state lotteries) • Analysis: How credible is the evidence? How likely is the effect? • Testimony/Authority– call on experts for “unknowable” matters • Ex: Most climate experts agree humans have caused some global warming • Analysis: How credible and relevant are the experts?

3. Weaver’s Ultimate Terms • Powerful symbols; unarguable • Reflect deep commonplaces, core elements of ideology • Must be honored + sacrificed for OR rejected + destroyed • god terms • Progress • Experts • Change • Green • New • Independence • Choice • Facts • Democracy • devil terms • Terrorist • Prejudice • Obese • Waste • Ignorance • 9/11 • Hitler • Bailout • Boring

4. Argumentative FallaciesProblems in reasoning (not merely mistaken facts)Here are some of them: • Ad Hominem (Argument To The Man) • Affirming The Consequent • Amazing Familiarity • Ambiguous Assertion • Appeal To Anonymous Authority • Appeal To Coincidence • Appeal To Complexity • Appeal To False Authority • Appeal To Force • Appeal To Widespread Belief (Bandwagon Argument, Peer Pressure, Appeal To Common Practice) • Argument By Dismissal • Argument By Emotive Language (Appeal To The People) • Argument By Fast Talking • Argument By Generalization • Argument By Gibberish (Bafflement) • Argument By Half Truth (Suppressed Evidence) • Argument By Laziness (Argument By Uninformed Opinion) • Argument By Personal Charm • Argument By Pigheadedness (Doggedness) • Argument By Repetition (Argument Ad Nauseam) • Argument By Selective Observation • Argument By Slogan • Argument By Vehemence • Argument From Adverse Consequences (Appeal To Fear, Scare Tactics) • Argument From Age (Wisdom of the Ancients) • Argument From Authority • Argument From False Authority • Argument From Personal Astonishment • Argument From Spurious Similarity • Argument Of The Beard • Begging The Question (Assuming The Answer, Tautology) • Burden Of Proof • Causal Reductionism (Complex Cause) • Contrarian Argument • Changing The Subject (Digression, Red Herring, Misdirection, False Emphasis) • Cliche Thinking • Common Sense • Complex Question (Tying) • Confusing Correlation And Causation • Disproof By Fallacy • Equivocation • Error Of Fact • Euphemism • Exception That Proves The Rule • Excluded Middle (False Dichotomy, Faulty Dilemma, Bifurcation) • Extended Analogy • Failure To State • Fallacy Of Composition • Fallacy Of Division • Fallacy Of The General Rule • Fallacy Of The Crucial Experiment • False Cause • False Compromise • Genetic Fallacy (Fallacy of Origins, Fallacy of Virtue) • Having Your Cake (Failure To Assert, or Diminished Claim) • Hypothesis Contrary To Fact • Inconsistency • Inflation Of Conflict • Internal Contradiction • Least Plausible Hypothesis • Lies • Meaningless Questions • Misunderstanding The Nature Of Statistics (Innumeracy) • Moving The Goalposts (Raising The Bar, Argument By Demanding Impossible Perfection) • Needling • Non Sequitur • Outdated Information • Poisoning The Wells • Psychogenetic Fallacy • Reductio Ad Absurdum • Reductive Fallacy (Oversimplification) • Reifying • Short Term Versus Long Term • Slippery Slope Fallacy (Camel's Nose) • Special Pleading (Stacking The Deck) • Statement Of Conversion • Stolen Concept • Straw Man (Fallacy Of Extension) • Two Wrongs Make A Right (TuQuoque, You Too) • Weasel Wording Source: http://www.don-lindsay-archive.org/skeptic/arguments.html

5. Fallacy Examples • Hasty Generalization – based on inadequate sample (too small or atypical) • It’s only the first day, but I can tell this class is going to be boring • The cops in State College are pricks. My friend and I both got hassled and we weren’t even that drunk.

6. Slippery Slope – a series of increasingly serious (and often increasingly unlikely) events stemming from a small action • Usually based on risk-aversion • DirecTV Commercial --Imaginary Butterflies

7. Fallacy Examples • Post hoc – correlation without causation • (technically: post hoc, ergo propter hoc: “after this, therefore because of this”) • Measure M got worse once President X came into office; president X can’t handle M (where M is something like gas prices, the economy, international relations, unemployment, optimism ratings, etc.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HL_vHDjG5Wk Source: www.scq.ubc.ca

8. Fallacy Examples • False Dichotomy (the Either/Or Fallacy) • America: love it or leave it. • A real friend would cover for me. (Really? When you just shot someone? Variation of “you’re either for us or against us.”) • Either we cut the Department of Defense, or else future retirees won’t get the Social Security benefits they need.

9. Fallacy Examples • Bandwagon Fallacy (Appeal to Popularity, Appeal to Consensus) • Just because everyone agrees doesn’t make it right, true, or best • It’s the most popular X on the market. • Everyone else is selfish; you shouldn’t feel bad for seeking your own happiness when everyone else is, too. Source: Andrew Schmidt / publicdomainpictures.net

10. Fallacy Examples • Begging the Question – Circular reasoning; requires acceptance of a conclusion identical to the premise • Murder is morally wrong; therefore, active euthanasia is morally wrong. • ESP is real because I have had experiences that couldn’t be explained (unless ESP was real). • Freedom of speech is important because it gives everyone a voice. • Usually these are trickier to spot than the examples above, following a chain (A is true because B is true; B is true because C is true; C is true because A is true). Or they use synonyms: • Free trade will be good for this country. The reason is patently clear. Isn't it obvious that unrestricted commercial relations will bestow on all sections of this nation the benefits which result when there is an unimpeded flow of goods between countries? (Quoted from With Good Reason, by S. Morris Engel)

11. Some resources on argumentative fallacies: • UNC Writing Center • Purdue Online Writing Lab • The Art of Conversational Terrorism