Significant environmental laws

Significant environmental laws The public demanded a cleaner environment Environmental problems needed tough regulations Thousands of laws protect health and environmental quality in the U.S.

Environmental policy changes over time Major advances in environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s occurred because: Strong evidence of environmental problems existed People could visualize policies to deal with problems The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act Pictures of Earth from space made us aware that our planet was finite

Many reacted against regulation By 1990, many felt that regulations were too strict Imposed economic burdens on people and businesses George W. Bush and the Republican-controlled Congresses (1994–2006) tried to weaken laws “The Death of Environmentalism” (2004): the environmental movement has to be reinvented It must appeal to core values with an inspiring vision This new outlook helped elect President Obama in 2008

Current environmental policy Climate change dominates discussion on environmental policy • Other nations have increased attention to issues • The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil • The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa • This wave of policy focuses on sustainability • Safeguarding ecosystems while raising living standards

International environmental policy International law is vital to solving transboundary issues Customary law: international law arising from long-standing practices or customs held by most cultures Conventional law:arises fromconventions or treaties Montreal Protocol (1987): 160 nations agreed to reduce ozone-depleting chemicals Kyoto Protocol: reduces greenhouse gas emissions causing climate change North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): Addresses U.S.–Mexico issues

Organizations shape international policy • International organizations influence nations through: • Funding, economic or political pressure, and media attention • United Nations (UN): plays an active role in policy • Sponsors conferences, coordinates treaties, publishes research • UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) promotes sustainability • Research, outreach activities • Provides information to policymakers and scientists

The World Bank and European Union The World Bank: one of the largest funding sources for economic development in poor countries Dams, irrigation, infrastructure, etc. Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects The European Union(EU) seeks to promote Europe’s unity and its economic and social progress Can sign binding treaties and enact regulations Sees environmental regulations as barriers to trade

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Represents multinational corporations Promotes free trade Can impose penalties on nations that don’t comply with its directives Interprets environmental laws as unfair barriers to trade Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against U.S. regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel The WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems

International treaties can weaken protection • International treaties allow industries and corporations to weaken environmental protection laws • They see laws as barriers to trade • Under NAFTA, investors can sue a country for lost profits • Canada sued the U.S. for $300 million for banning beef after finding mad cow disease in Canada cows • Canada sued the U.S. for $1 billion for banning MTBE, a dangerous gasoline additive • The U.S. forced Mexico to pay $16 million and reopen a toxic waste dump

NGOs • Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs):entities that influence international policy • Some do not get politically involved • Example: The Nature Conservancy • Others try to shape policy through research, education, lobbying, or protest • Example: Conservation International, the World Wide Fund for Nature, Greenpeace, Population Connection

Seven steps to making environmental policy • Creating environmental policy has several steps • Requires initiative, dedication, and the support of many people • Theoretically, in the U.S., everyone has a voice and can make a difference • But money wields influence • Some people and organizations are more influential than others

Step 1: Identify a problem Requires scientific inquiry and data collection

Step 2: Pinpoint causes of the problem • Involves scientific research

Step 3: Envision a solution Science plays a vital role here, too Solutions also require social or political action

Step 4: Get organized Organizations are more effective than individuals But a motivated, informed individual can also succeed

Step 5: Cultivate access and influence • People gain access to policymakers and influence them through lobbying and campaign contributions • Professional lobbyists are employed by businesses and organizations • Anyone can donate money to a candidate

Step 6: Shepherd the solution into law Prepare a bill, or draft law, containing solutions Find members of the House and Senate to introduce the bill and shepherd it through committees The bill may become law or die in various ways

How a bill becomes law Before a bill becomes law, it must clear multiple hurdles

Step 7: Implement, assess, and interpret policy • Following a law’s enactment • Administrative agencies implement regulations • Policymakers evaluate the policy’s successes or failures • The courts interpret the law

Science plays a role, but can be politicized A nation’s strength depends on proper use of science Governments use some tax money to fund research Sometimes policymakers let ideology determine policy Politicians ignore scientists and mislead the public Government scientists have had their work censored, suppressed, or edited and their jobs threatened Unqualified people are put into powerful positions Scientifically literate citizens must ensure that our government uses proper use of science When taxpayer-funded research is suppressed or distorted for political ends, everyone loses

Three major types of policy approaches • Environmental policy has 3 major approaches: • Lawsuits • Command-and-control • Economic policy tools

Strategy: lawsuits in the courts • Before legislation, lawsuits addressed U.S. policy issues • Individuals suffering from pollution sued polluters in court • Courts make polluters stop or pay fines • Industrialization and population growth made it harder to control pollution • Also, justices were reluctant to hinder industry • People saw legislation and regulation as more effective in protecting health and safety

Strategy: command and control Command-and-control approach: a regulating agency prohibits actions, or sets rules or limits Threatening punishment for violators This is the approach used for most environmental laws and regulations enforced by agencies today This simple approach has worked well It brings cleaner air, water, safer workplaces, and healthier neighborhoods

Strategy: economic policy tools People don’t like the top-down approaches that dictate particular solutions to problems Alternative approaches channel innovation and economic policies to benefit the public: Promote desired, and discourage undesired, outcomes Encourage market competition to produce new solutions at lower cost Strategies include: Green taxes, subsidies, permit trading, and ecolabeling

Green taxes discourage unsustainability • Governments use taxes to benefit the public • Internalizing harmful external costs makes them part of the cost of doing business • Green taxes: tax environmentally harmful activities and products • Businesses reimburse the public for damage they cause • The more pollution, the higher the tax payment • Companies have financial incentives to reduce pollution with freedom to decide how to do so • But costs are passed on to consumers

Who should pay for pollution? • Green taxes are not widely supported in the U.S. • Other “sin taxes” (e.g., on cigarettes and alcohol) are tools of U.S. social policy • Polluter-pays principle: the party that pollutes is held responsible for covering the costs of its impacts • Widely used in Europe • Carbon taxes: controversial taxes on gasoline, coal-based electricity, and other fossil fuels • Used to fight climate change

Permit trading saves money Permit trading: a government-created market in permits for an environmentally harmful activity Businesses buy, sell, or trade these permits Cap-and-trade emissions trading system: the government sets pollution levels (“caps”) Permits let polluters emit some amount of pollution Polluters can exchange (sell) permits The government can set lower emission levels Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions

A cap-and-trade system for air pollution • One U.S. cap-and-trade system decreased sulfur dioxide emissions • Cuts were obtained more cheaply than expected • With no effects on electricity supply or economic growth • Billions of dollars per year are saved • Benefits outweigh costs 40 to 1

Ecolabeling empowers consumers Uses the marketplace to counteract market failures Ecolabeling: tells consumers which brands use environmentally benign processes Dolphin-safe tuna, labeling recycled paper, etc. • Ecolabeling is a powerful incentive for businesses to change

Market incentives work at the local level • Municipalities charge residents for waste disposal • According to the amount of waste generated • Cities tax disposal of costly items (tires, motor oil) • Some cities give rebates for buying water-efficient appliances • Power utilities give discounts to those buying efficient lightbulbs and appliances • It is cheaper than expanding generating capacity

Conclusion Environmental policy is a problem-solving tool It uses science, ethics, and economics Conventional command-and-control approach uses legislation and regulations to make policy It is the most common approach Innovative economic policy tools are being developed Environmental and ecological economists quantify the value of ecosystem services Economic well-being does not need a trade-off with environmental quality

Significant environmental laws