Chapter 35

1. Chapter 35 Behavioral Adaptations to the Environment

2. Leaping Herds of Herbivores • Impalas of the African savanna are one of the most successful species, despite heavy pressure from predators • Behavior is the key to the impala's success • The study of animal behavior is essential to understanding animal evolution and ecological interactions

5. THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF BEHAVIOR • 35.1 Behavioral ecologists ask both proximate and ultimate questions • Behavior: everything an animal does and how it does it • Includes unobservable activities such as learning • Early workers in the field of behavioral biology • Karl von Frisch studied honeybee behavior • Konrad Lorenz compared behavior of animals in response to different stimuli

6. Niko Tinbergen pioneered behavioral ecology, the study of behavior in an evolutionary context • Proximate questions focus on immediate causes of a behavior • Ultimate questions focus on the evolutionary cause of a behavior

8. 35.2 Early behaviorists used experiments to study fixed action patterns • Innate behavior: behavior performed the same way by all members of a species • Under strong genetic control but improves with experience • Fixed action patterns: innate unchangeable behavioral sequences • Triggered by a sign stimulus • Advantageous when behaviors must be performed without time for learning

10. 35.3 Behavior is the result of both genes and environmental factors • Phenotypic traits-including behavior-are the result of both genetic and environmental influences • Studies of complex mating and parenting behaviors in prairie voles • Differences in oxytocin and vasopressin receptors in montane and prairie voles • Transgenic experiments with mice • A single gene may control much of prairie vole behavior

11. Cross-fostering experiments • Experience during development can change later behavior • Conclusion: strong evidence that vole behaviors are the product of both genes and environment

14. LEARNING • 35.4 Learning ranges from simple behavioral changes to complex problem solving • Learning: a change in behavior resulting from experience • Enables animals to respond to environmental conditions • Habituation: learning not to respond to a repeated uninformative stimulus • May increase fitness by allowing nervous system to focus on important stimuli

16. 35.5 Imprinting is learning that involves innate behavior and experience • Imprinting: irreversible learned behavior • Limited to a sensitive period • Demonstrated in classic experiments by Konrad Lorenz • Important in formation of bonds between parents and young • Functions in salmon finding home stream • Plays a role in song development for many birds

19. Video: Ducklings

20. CONNECTION • 35.6 Imprinting poses problems and opportunities for conservation programs • Endangered cranes imprinted on foster parents would not breed with their own species • Operation Migration • Chicks bonded with planes used as surrogate mothers • Young birds learned migration routes

22. 35.7 Animal movement may be a simple response to stimuli or involve spatial learning • Kinesis: random movement in response to a stimulus • Taxis: more or less automatic movement directed toward or away from a stimulus • Spatial learning: more complex than kinesis or taxis • Involves using landmarks to move through the environment • Example: Tinbergen wasp experiment

23. LE 35-7a Direction of river current

24. LE 35-7b Nest No nest Nest Nest No nest

25. 35.8 Movements of animals may depend on internal maps • Cognitive map: internal representation of spatial relationships among objects in an animal's surroundings • Migration: regular back-and-forth movement between two geographic areas • Animals may use sun, stars, landmarks, or innate responses to environmental cues to navigate • Example: indigo buntings' star map

26. LE 35-8 Paper Funnel- shaped cage Ink pad

27. 35.9 Animals may learn to associate a stimulus or behavior with a response • Associative learning • Animal learns that a particular stimulus or response is linked to a reward or punishment • Trial-and-error learning • Animal learns to associate one of its own behavioral acts with a positive or negative effect • Animal repeats or avoids the response

29. 35.10 Social learning involves observation and imitation of others • Social learning: learning by observing the behavior of others • Example: vervet monkey alarm calls

31. 35.11 Problem-solving behavior relies on cognition • Cognition: ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors • Problem solving: ability to apply past experience to novel situations • Involves complex cognitive processes • Highly developed in some mammals • Observed in some bird species

34. Video: Chimp Cracking Nut

35. FORAGING AND MATING BEHAVIORS • 35.12 Behavioral ecologists use cost-benefit analysis in studying foraging • Foraging: food-obtaining behavior • Includes recognizing, searching for, capturing, and eating food items • Animals forage in many ways • Generalists eat all or most available foods (example: gulls) • Specialists eat only specific things (example: koalas)

38. Search image: mechanism that enables finding a particular food efficiently • Optimal foraging theory: feeding behavior should provide maximal energy gain with minimal energy expense and risk • Occurs among many species when prey is plentiful • May be improved by group behavior

40. 35.13 Mating behaviors enhance reproductive success • Several mating systems are found among animals • Promiscuous: no strong pair-bonds or lasting relationships between males and females • Monogamous: one male with one female • Polygamous: individual of one sex mating with several of the other sex

41. Needs of offspring and certainty of paternity help explain differences in mating systems and parental care • Needy young generally have monogamous parents (example: many birds) • Mating and birth separated by time often lead to parental care by males (example: fish)

43. 35.14 Mating behavior often involves elaborate courtship rituals • In many species, courtship rituals confirm that individuals are • Of the same species • Of the opposite sex • Are physically primed for mating • Are not a threat

45. Courtship rituals are a group activity in some species • Members of one or both sexes choose mates from a group of candidates

47. Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual

48. SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY • 35.15 Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context • Social behavior: any interaction between two or more animals • Examples: courtship, aggression, cooperation • Sociobiology applies evolutionary theory to social behaviors • How they are adaptive • How they could have evolved by natural selection

49. 35.16 Territorial behavior parcels space and resources • A territory is an area that is • Usually fixed in location • Inhabited by an individual • Defended from occupancy by other individuals of the same species • Territory size varies with species, function of the territory, and resources available • Territories are used for feeding, mating, and/or rearing young