Presentation Transcript

1. 多元複合議題的城鄉發展規劃MULTIDISCIPLINARY AND COMPLEX ISSUES ON PLANNING URBAN-RURAL DEVELOPMENT

   顏厚棟 (Ho-don Yan) 逢甲大學經濟系
2. Dec. 7, 2012
3. Globalization Vs. Localization Globalization (全球化) Goods and services(商品與勞務)-EX and IM up Labor(勞動)- immigration Capital (資本) – financial globalization Localization (在地化) Regional development Agglomeration, industrial district, cluster, co-location
4. Economic Growth Solow Model Y = AF(K,L), saving(儲蓄 up), population(人口成長down), and technology(技術up) are important. (R. Solow) Other important complement factors for a nation’s economic growth: openness (開放貿易) 、 government policy (政府政策 fiscal and monetary) 、 human capital(人力資本) 、 political stability(政治穩定) 、property right (財產權) 、有效政府治理(effective governance) 、所得平均 (income equality) Three Focused Approaches: (A. Acemoglu) Policy(政策) matters Geography(地理) matters Institution(制度) matters
5. Hot Issue: Growth and Inequality Globalization and Inequality Inequality is detrimental to growth Equality: opportunity vs entitlement Inequality and Justice (正義)
6. Phases of Economic Development Factor-driven (要素驅動) economies Efficiency-driven (效率驅動) economies Innovation-driven (創新驅動) economies Global Competitiveness Report 2009-2010 (Schwab 2009)
7. Economic Growth: Macro and Micro Level Macro level: aggregate data, nation (Solow model). Macroeconomic analysis Productionless (Input-> output, a black box) Micro level: Firm (quality vs. quantity) and market Market equilibrium (efficiency resource allocation, given prices known under perfect competition) vsinequilibrium (Market Process, I. Kirzner) Product development, production process, management, marketing
8. The Purpose of Entrepreneurship Creating Wealth (productive vs non-productive) Adding Value (personal or societal) Making Profit (social entrepreneurship)
9. Defining Entrepreneurship Synonyms: Innovation, change, middleman, etc. An activity that involves the discovery, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities to introduce new goods and services, ways of organizing, markets, processes, and raw materials through organizing efforts that previously had not existed. (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000)
10. Entrepreneurs Misbehavior, misfit (Economist, Jan. 2012) Asperger’s syndrome: an obsessive interest in narrow subjects; a passion for numbers, patterns and machines; an addiction to repetitive tasks; and a lack of sensitivity to social cues. “The people who run them are sort of autistic.” “the Geek Syndrom”: Prominent dyslexics include the founders of Ford, General Electric, IBM and IKEA, not to mention more recent successes such as Charles Schwab (the founder of a stockbroker), Richard Branson (the Virgin Group), John Chambers (Cisco) and Steve Jobs (Apple). Dyslexics learn how to delegate tasks early (getting other people to do their homework, for example). They gravitate to activities that require few formal qualifications and demand little reading or writing.
11. Types of entrepreneurship Adaptive vs. revolutionary Kirznerian vs. Schumpeterian Immitative vs. innovative Productive, unproductive, and destructive (Baumol) Institutional entrepreneurship
12. Entrepreneurship What ? Economics, Sociology, Psychology. Personal traits vs. what he/she does (“A baseball player is not something one is, it is something one does”) Institution, social constraint Market economy and entrepreneurship (Kirzner) How ? Strategic management
13. Entrepreneurship: Attitudes, Activity, and Aspirations Attitudes: Perceived opportunities; Perceived capabilities ; Fear of failure; Entrepreneurial intentions; Entrepreneurship as a good career choice; High status to successful entrepreneurs; Media attention for entrepreneurship Activity: Nascent entrepreneurship rate New business ownership rate Early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) Established business ownership Discontinuation of businesses Necessity-driven (% of TEA) Improvement-driven opportunity (%of TEA) Aspirations Job-growth expectation (to create 5 or more jobs; to create 20 or more jobs) Innovation (new product, or new market) and international orientation
14. Measuring Entrepreneurship - GEM The early-stage entrepreneurial activity, or TEA: TEA rate is the proportion of people aged 18-64 who are involved in entrepreneurial activity as a nascent entrepreneur or as an owner-manager of a new business.
15. Entrepreneurship is a Process GEM observes the actions of entrepreneurs who are at different stages of the process of creating and sustaining a business. For GEM, the payment of any wages for more than 3 months to anybody, including the owners, is considered to be the “birth event” of actual businesses. Individuals who are actively committing resources to start a business that they expect to own themselves, but who have not reached this “birth event” are labeled nascent entrepreneurship.
16. Dec. 14, 2012
17. Entrepreneurial Activity Effective entrepreneurial action usually includes opportunity discovery and involves leadership, strategic planning, and competitive advantage creation. (Alvarez and Barney, 2007)
18. Entrepreneurial Process Existence of opportunity Discovery of opportunity Decision to exploit opportunity Resource acquisition Entrepreneurial strategy Organizing process Performance
19. Entrepreneurial Process (Yu, 2011)
20. 信義房屋仲介股份有限公司(周俊吉) 設立於1981年，其時政府尚未核准仲介公司營業，因此以「信義代書事務所」提供房屋買賣仲介服務，至1987年正式成立「信義房屋仲介股份有限公司」。 信義房屋於1999年股票上櫃，並於2001年申請上市成功，為台灣地區唯一股票上市的房仲公司。 直營分店涵蓋台北市、新北市、桃園、新竹、台中、台南、高雄等都會區，為台灣地區直營分店最多的仲介公司，目前全球企業總部設於台北市信義路五段信義大樓。
21. 信義房屋 – Chen and Yu Entrepreneur’s Alertness to the Market Opportunity The Institutional Innovation of Fixed-PercentageCommission The Institutional Innovation of Real Estate DisclosureStatement and After-Sale Guarantee Real Estate Disclosure Statement After-Sale Guarantee
22. Transaction Cost Entrepreneurship and the Case of Sinyi Real Estate Co. Transaction Cost: Coase, Williamson Exchange through market to “buy” or “make” (vertical integration) Production side and consumer side Where there is transaction cost, there is opportunity for entrepreneurship. The Emergent of Real Estate Agent High transaction cost (to buy): quality measurement, governance, and asset specificity High opportunity cost: (to make) house Jack built
23. Institutional Entrepreneurship Activities of actors who have an interests in particular institutional arrangement and who leverage resources to create new institutions or to transform existing ones. (Maguire, Hardy, & Lawrence, 2004:657)
24. Dec. 28, 2012
25. Typology of Entrepreneurship Example: Legal: complying with law.Legitimate: fair, morally or ethically acceptable.It may be legal to infect a computer with a virus, if there is still no law against it. But it isn't legitimate.Gay marriage is not legal in some places, but some people think that they have a legitimate claim for it to become legal. He is not guilty, but he is responsible.
26. Transaction Cost Theory The decision to organize transactions within the firm as opposed to the open market – the “make or buy decision” – depends on the relative costs of internal versus external exchange (Williamson, 1975).
27. Transaction Cost Entrepreneurship In this consumer-centric world, the goal of entrepreneurs is to propose a transaction that causes the customer to change from providing a product or service for himself to buying it from an outsider. In other words, the entrepreneur persuades the customers to choose to “buy” rather than to “make,” or to induce customers to do vertical de-integration.
28. Transaction Cost: A Workable Concept Transaction costs occur due to the information gap during the transaction process, involving such items as searching for information, bargaining about the price, signing the contract, and monitoring and enforcing the contract (Dahlman, 1979). A workable concept of transaction costs included search and information costs, bargaining and decision costs, and policing and enforcement costs.
29. Dimensions of Transaction Cost Williamson (1985, 1989) further expounded on transaction costs by demonstrating that each transaction has different dimensions, such as frequency of transaction, asset specificity, and level of uncertainty that can be found in quality measurement and governance. Each dimension alters the transaction cost and therefore creates different
30. Uncertainty and Transaction costs Transaction costs are caused by uncertainties, which can be found in quality measurement and governance of transaction costs (Williamson, 1985).
31. Quality Measurement The difficulty of distinguishing good quality from bad is inherent in the business world and this may be one of the more important aspects of uncertainty (Akerlof, 1970: 38). Quality is defined in various ways, such as technical performance, conformance to standards, reliability in use, and others (Garvin, 1987). In the absence of quality measurement, a market cannot form (Akerlof, 1970; Milgrom, 1981).
32. Governance Uncertainty can be created by the presence of opportunism, or the tendency of individuals to seek self-interest by means of guile. The prospect of future transactions reduces the risk of opportunism. Overconfident entrepreneurs might be unable to deliver on the commitments necessary to fulfill the transaction, and this is deemed as an identity risk (Busenitz, and Barney, 1997). Identity risk is the risk that the effort of the entrepreneur is directed toward the interest of the customer, yet the effort is insufficient to achieve the task (Michael, 2007). To grapple with the issue of identity risk, staged commitment can be a useful tool.
33. Asset Specificity Refers to durable investments that are undertaken in support of particular transactions (Williamson, 1985). Applies to capital designed to have a single function, or labor trained to perform a single task. In principle, the more specific an asset is, the lower its potential resale value or redeployability. Six different types of asset specificity are usefully distinguished: site specificity, physical asset specificity, human asset specificity, dedicated assets, brand name capital, and temporal specificity (Leiblein, 2003). If specific assets are the sub-components obtained through the exchange of the market transaction, it is easily to be the target for opportunism and the cause for the “hold up” problem.
34. Cluster Co-location, or geographical proximity, not only raises productivity, drives innovation, and reduces uncertainty for firms within the cluster, but also allows for knowledge externalities, reduces the costs of discovery, and stimulates new businesses (Porter, 1990; Krugman, 1991). The benefits from the cluster encompass three types of economic externalities: labor market externalities, input externalities, and knowledge externalities (Krugman, 1991).
35. “When an industry has thus chosen a locality for itself, it is likely to stay there long: so great are the advantages which people following the same skilled trade gets from near neighborhood to one another. The mysteries of the trade become no mysteries; but are as it were in the air, and children learn many of them unconsciously. Good work is rightly appreciated, inventions and improvements in machinery, in processes and the general organization of the business have their merits of promptly discussed: If one man starts a new idea, it is taken up by others and combined with suggestions of their own; and thus it becomes the source of further new ideas.” (Marshall, 1890)
36. World Economic Forum (2008), Taiwan has taken first place in the state of cluster development. Taiwan placed second in this index in 2004 through 2007, and in 2007 it moved into first place globally. Taiwan’s score for the “Stage of Cluster Development” index rose from 5.53 points (out of a possible 7 points) to 5.7 points, making the island a model of industrial cluster development for the whole world. Taipei has digital content and ceramics clusters; Hsinchu has optical disk, automobile, and glass clusters; Taichung has bicycle, precision machinery, and musical instrument clusters; Changhua has knitted hosiery and bicycle clusters; and Tainan has TFT-LCD, IC, and knitted sweater clusters.
37. Clusters and Entrepreneurship The literature on the interaction between clusters and entrepreneurship mostly emphasizes how clusters help incubate entrepreneurship, barring a few exceptions, such as Rosenfeld (1997) and Feldman and Francis (2006).
38. As noted by Schumpeter (1934), entrepreneurs who purposely seek profit through finding new production methods, new materials, new markets, or new organizations help push the firm and the economy to grow. Together with knowledge externality and lower costs for discovering opportunities, industrial clusters - which merit creating entrepreneurial activities and advocating government-directed cluster polices - have been gaining broad support (Raines, 2002; OECD, 2000; Observatory of European SMEs, 2002; World Bank, 2000).
39. Although Marshall (1890) addressed the importance of co-locality, how a cluster is formed was never explained. With the most focus on the one-way effect from cluster to entrepreneurship incubation, the formation of a cluster being initiated by entrepreneurs has been neglected.
40. Schumpeter (1934) argued that successful pioneer entrepreneurs remove the obstacles faced by entrepreneurial activity in the early stages. This produces the “clustering of the followers”. Entrepreneurs spark a cluster formation and a regional competitive advantage (Feldman and Francis, 2006). Entrepreneurship is one of the driving forces of cluster development via spin-offs and increasing rivalry.
41. Having the experience and example of the initial start-up, a successful cluster becomes self-sustaining: entrepreneurs attract physical and human capital to the area, public and private networks are built up to support and facilitate the ventures, relevant infrastructure is created through public and private initiatives, and services grow up to feed these companies.
42. Entrepreneurship and the Life-cycle of Clusters When a cluster is locked into the rules and routines of the past, it is prone to missing any new chances of upgrading. Such a situation, like what Porter (1998) called “groupthink,” may be exacerbated by a tendency to exclude newcomers or outsiders. The saturation within the cluster may generate diseconomies of scale as congestion and competition slow down individual firms’ growth and entry, eventually contributing to the decline of the cluster.
43. 陳良治 (2012) 除了透過保護政策或財政補貼等方式（Lall, 1996; Amsden and Chu, 2003），許多文獻強調後進國家的政府得透過設立公共研發機構來協助本國產業的技術發展。其認為藉由設立公共研究機構來獲取先進技術，這些後進國家得以策略性地讓技術及研發能力有限，更無法獨立排除技術障礙的國內產業或廠商得到其發展所需的技術知識（Amsden, 1989;Hobday, 1995; Katrak, 1998; Mazzoleni and Nelson, 2007）。
44. 在台灣工具機業技術發展與升級的過程中，國家的角色是不容忽視的。雖然這個論點與強調後進工業化過程中，「國家是重要的」的主張相類似，但本研究經由檢視台灣工具機業與機械所在不同階段互動的內涵與演變，以及工具機廠商對於政府研發經費補助措施的回應，則特別指出：在台灣工具機業技術升級的過程中，國家設立之公共研究機構的帶領效果不應被過分強調。此外，如果我們要將國家的政策干預，例如政府的研究補助計畫，與產業或廠商技術能力的提昇予以連結，我們必須理解，由於國家未能意識國內工具機業者認為技術與競爭力進步應是漸進式的務實看法，現有國內強調鼓勵標的產業或廠商快速技術創新的政府資金補助機制，並不合乎這些工具機廠商的實際需求。在此狀況下，是這些廠商利用可取得的政府資源，將其轉向投入至自身認定有利的發展領域，最終導致國家干預的潛在利益得以實現。 在台灣工具機業技術發展與升級的過程中，國家的角色是不容忽視的。雖然這個論點與強調後進工業化過程中，「國家是重要的」的主張相類似，但本研究經由檢視台灣工具機業與機械所在不同階段互動的內涵與演變，以及工具機廠商對於政府研發經費補助措施的回應，則特別指出：在台灣工具機業技術升級的過程中，國家設立之公共研究機構的帶領效果不應被過分強調。此外，如果我們要將國家的政策干預，例如政府的研究補助計畫，與產業或廠商技術能力的提昇予以連結，我們必須理解，由於國家未能意識國內工具機業者認為技術與競爭力進步應是漸進式的務實看法，現有國內強調鼓勵標的產業或廠商快速技術創新的政府資金補助機制，並不合乎這些工具機廠商的實際需求。在此狀況下，是這些廠商利用可取得的政府資源，將其轉向投入至自身認定有利的發展領域，最終導致國家干預的潛在利益得以實現。
45. 國家不見得能引領產業或廠商升級的步伐，但在協助產業應付當今快速變化的全球競爭及技術環境上，國家仍可扮演重要的角色。 國家不見得能引領產業或廠商升級的步伐，但在協助產業應付當今快速變化的全球競爭及技術環境上，國家仍可扮演重要的角色。