Lecture 6: Long Term Memory - Basic Principles

1. 1 Lecture 6: Long Term Memory - Basic Principles

2. 2 Levels of Processing (LOP) Craik & Lockhart (1972) Quality of memory depends on how information is encoded Let�s have a demo

3. 3 Count # of vowels in each word Chair Mathematics Elephant Lamp Car Elevator Cactus

4. 4 Visualize how useful the item would be on a deserted island Umbrella Exercise Forgiveness Rock Hamburger Sunlight Bottle

5. 5 How did you do? Chair Mathematics Elephant Lamp Car Elevator Cactus

6. 6 What LOP tells us Memory for words is better when they are linked to other knowledge Visualizing item use on deserted island links the words to knowledge Counting vowels focuses on the word itself Depth of processing

7. 7 Depth of Processing Shallow processing Little attention to meaning Focus on physical features of the word (number of vowels, letters in all capitals) Occurs during maintenance rehearsal

8. 8 Depth of Processing Deep processing Close attention to meaning Relating item to something else Deep processing takes longer Deep processing results in better memory

9. 9 Experimental Evidence for LOP Craik & Tulving (1975) Figure 6.9 (p. 196)(a) Sequence of events in Craik and Tulving�s (1975) experiment. (b) Results of this experiment. Deeper processing (fill in the blanks) is associated with longer reaction times to answer the question about a word, and better memory for the word.Figure 6.9 (p. 196)(a) Sequence of events in Craik and Tulving�s (1975) experiment. (b) Results of this experiment. Deeper processing (fill in the blanks) is associated with longer reaction times to answer the question about a word, and better memory for the word.

10. 10 Types of questions Shallow: Is the word printed in capital letters? Deeper: Does the word rhyme with train? Deepest: Does the word fit into the sentence �He saw a ____ on the street?�

11. 11 Craik & Tulving Results

12. 12 Issues with deep processing Deep processing isn�t really well defined Deep processing doesn�t always take longer Slow: Count vowels in �automobile� Fast: Car-Transportation or vegetable? Meaning task is faster

13. 13 Aiding Encoding: Forming additional connections More descriptive sentences for memory Chicken She cooked the chicken. The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken. Which sentence would help you to remember the word �chicken�?

14. 14 Aiding Encoding: Forming additional connections Referencing yourself Figure 6.11 (p. 199)Sequence of events in Rogers et al.�s (1979) self-reference experiment. This is the same as the design of Craik and Tulving�s (1975) experiment shown in Figure 6.9, but the questions refer to the person being tested. (b) Results of the experiment.Figure 6.11 (p. 199)Sequence of events in Rogers et al.�s (1979) self-reference experiment. This is the same as the design of Craik and Tulving�s (1975) experiment shown in Figure 6.9, but the questions refer to the person being tested. (b) Results of the experiment.

15. 15 Transfer-Appropriate Processing Does deeper processing always result in better memory?. Retrieval is enhanced if method of encoding

16. 16 Morris, et al. (1977) Two methods of encoding Semantic acquisition: Does the word fit into this sentence �The ___ rode a bicycle.� Deep processing Rhyming acquisition: Does the word rhyme with toy? Shallow processing

17. 17 Morris, et al. (1977) One method of retrieval Rhyming test: Present unseen word Which word presented before rhymes with current word? Summary of the two conditions Semantic acquisition (SA), rhyming test (RT) Rhyming acquisition (RA), rhyming test (RT)

18. 18 Morris, et al. Results Figure 6.20 (p. 212)Design and results for transfer-appropriate processing experiment (Morris et al., 1977). SA, RT stands for �semantic acquisition, rhyming test.� RA, RT stands for �rhyming acquisition, rhyming test.� Notice that performance is better if acquisition and text conditions match.Figure 6.20 (p. 212)Design and results for transfer-appropriate processing experiment (Morris et al., 1977). SA, RT stands for �semantic acquisition, rhyming test.� RA, RT stands for �rhyming acquisition, rhyming test.� Notice that performance is better if acquisition and text conditions match.

19. 19 What does this mean? The principle of encoding specificity State-dependent learning

20. 20 Why do these help encoding? Retrieval cues Related to: Retrieval (coming up soon) Distributed activation (future lecture)

21. 21 Aiding Encoding: Organizing Information Jenkins & Russell (1952) People will spontaneously organize items as they recall them Demo Remember the words in the list I read Write the words down in any order Apple / shirt / banana / desk / plum / sofa / shoe / chairApple / shirt / banana / desk / plum / sofa / shoe / chair

22. 22 Aiding Encoding: Organizing Information One person: Tell me the words you wrote down in order Apple, plum, banana, shirt, shoe, sofa, desk, chair Bower et. al (1969) - Present words in concept trees Organized vs. random trees

23. 23 Organized tree for �minerals� Organized trees: 73 words Random trees: 21 words

24. 24 Organization adds a meaningful framework If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn�t be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on the steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire could also cause problems.

25. 25 Bransford & Johnson (1972) What?!? Does this help?

26. 26 Outline Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM) Encoding information into LTM Storing information in LTM Retrieving information from LTM

27. 27 How do we store memories? In the brain! At the synapse level Memories are represented through)

28. 28 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) New experience causes neuron A to release neurotransmitter Repeated activity causes greater This leads to enhanced firing

29. 29 Hebbian Learning Figure 6.15 (p. 204)What happens at a synapse as (a) a stimulus is first presented. The record next to the electrode indicates the rate of firing in the axon of the postsynaptic neuron. (b) The stimulus is repeated. Structural changes are beginning to occur. (c) After many repetitions, more complex connections have developed between the two neurons, which causes an increase in the firing rate, even though the stimulus is the same one that was presented in (a).Figure 6.15 (p. 204)What happens at a synapse as (a) a stimulus is first presented. The record next to the electrode indicates the rate of firing in the axon of the postsynaptic neuron. (b) The stimulus is repeated. Structural changes are beginning to occur. (c) After many repetitions, more complex connections have developed between the two neurons, which causes an increase in the firing rate, even though the stimulus is the same one that was presented in (a).

30. 30 Ideas like this win Nobel Prizes Many researchers have shown that LTP is easiest to generate Kandel (2001) won a Nobel Prize for his work in this area

31. 31 LTP occurs in neural circuits Hebb expanded his LTP At first, circuits are But they fire close together

32. 32 Remembering Sally�s number Figure 6.16 (p. 205)How groups of neurons can work together to create a circuit for remembering Sally�s phone number. (a) Circuits that represent �sally� and �Sally�s phone number� before learning. (b) Circuits become linked during learning. (c) Later, activation of one circuit can trigger the other one.Figure 6.16 (p. 205)How groups of neurons can work together to create a circuit for remembering Sally�s phone number. (a) Circuits that represent �sally� and �Sally�s phone number� before learning. (b) Circuits become linked during learning. (c) Later, activation of one circuit can trigger the other one.

33. 33 Memory consolidation Period to consolidate memories is known as If consolidation is disrupted for a lot of memories, the

34. 34 The hippocampus and memory Consolidation is directed by the temporal H.M. had hippocampus removed to control seizures, but he couldn�t form new long-term memories

35. 35 H.M.�s brain damage H.M.�s damage was not just in the hippocampus, but most of his medial-temporal lobe Figure 6.17 (p. 208)Underside of the brain. The structures labeled on the left, plus the hippocampus, are the main structures of the medial temporal lobe (MTL).Figure 6.17 (p. 208)Underside of the brain. The structures labeled on the left, plus the hippocampus, are the main structures of the medial temporal lobe (MTL).

36. 36 Conclusions from H.M. Hippocampus is not needed for Hippocampus IS Hippocampus is not Hippocampus is not Procedural learning - The incomplete picture testProcedural learning - The incomplete picture test

37. 37 Outline Structure of Long-Term Memory (LTM) Encoding information into LTM Storing information in LTM Retrieving information from LTM

38. 38 How do we remember things? Retrieval! Most memory failures are that of retrieval How can retrieval be made better?

39. 39 Retrieval Cues Real-world examples Visiting the house you grew up in brings back childhood memories Something random reminds you to go to the store Other examples?

40. 40 Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) Present 48 words randomly from groups Figure 6.18 (p. 210)Design of the Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) experiment. The results for each group are on the right.Figure 6.18 (p. 210)Design of the Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) experiment. The results for each group are on the right.

41. 41 Mantyla (1986) Subjects saw 600 nouns, write 3 words associated with each noun Figure 6.19 (p. 211)Results of Mantyla�s (1986) experiment. Memory was best if retrieval cues were created by the person (top bar), not as good when retrieval cues were created by someone else (middle bar), and worst when the cues were created by someone else and the person had never seen them associated with the word (bottom bar).Figure 6.19 (p. 211)Results of Mantyla�s (1986) experiment. Memory was best if retrieval cues were created by the person (top bar), not as good when retrieval cues were created by someone else (middle bar), and worst when the cues were created by someone else and the person had never seen them associated with the word (bottom bar).

42. 42 State-depedent learning State-dependent learning Memory is best if a person is in the same state for encoding and retrieval Let�s look at some examples

43. 43 Godden & Baddeley (1975):Learning Environment Figure 6.21 (p. 215))Design for Godden and Baddeley (1975) �diving� experiment. (b) Results for each test condition are indicated by the bar directly underneath that condition. Asterisks indicate situations in which study and test conditions matched.Figure 6.21 (p. 215))Design for Godden and Baddeley (1975) �diving� experiment. (b) Results for each test condition are indicated by the bar directly underneath that condition. Asterisks indicate situations in which study and test conditions matched.

44. 44 Grant et. al (1998):Learning Conditions Figure 6.22 (p. 215)(a) Design for Grant et al.�s (1998) �studying� experiment. (b) Results of the experiment. Asterisks indicate situations in which study and test conditions matched.Figure 6.22 (p. 215)(a) Design for Grant et al.�s (1998) �studying� experiment. (b) Results of the experiment. Asterisks indicate situations in which study and test conditions matched.

45. 45 Elch & Metcalfe (1989):Learning Mood Figure 6.23 (p. 216)(a) Design for Eich and Metcalfe�s (1989) �mood� experiment. (b) Results of the experiment.Figure 6.23 (p. 216)(a) Design for Eich and Metcalfe�s (1989) �mood� experiment. (b) Results of the experiment.

46. 46 Encoding specificity works! By matching internal and external So if you�re tired now, make sure you�re tired for the exam!

47. 47 What this says about studying: Elaboration Study using deep, Don�t just read, but Peterson (1992) - 82% of students highlight No What else can you do?

48. 48 What this says about studying: Organize You need a meaningful Use my lecture outlines Create your own lecture outlines What else can you do?

49. 49 What this says about studying: Associate Create mnemonics! Four lobes of the brain Frontal in the front Parietal is partway between the front and back Temporal lobe is near the temples Other mnemonics?

50. 50 What this says about studying: Take Breaks Get some Give your brain Distributed vs. massed practice effect (Reder & Anderson, 1982): Difficult to hold Studying after a break Studying same material

51. 51 What this says about studying: Encoding Specificity Match study and test conditions Break into the classroom and study? Study in as many places as possible Reduce how much of the knowledge is tied to a specific context Figure 6.24 (p. 217)Attempting to retrieve information by answering questions about what you have studied can strengthen encoding. This strengthened encoding then increases the likelihood that the next attempt at retrieval will be successful.Figure 6.24 (p. 217)Attempting to retrieve information by answering questions about what you have studied can strengthen encoding. This strengthened encoding then increases the likelihood that the next attempt at retrieval will be successful.