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Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water

Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water. Outline. Health Effects of Chlorinated Drinking Water Review of 30 years of DBP research on occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity Dermal/inhalation exposure, genotype, and health risks Research needs.

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Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water

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  1. Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity of Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water

  2. Outline • Health Effects of Chlorinated Drinking Water • Review of 30 years of DBP research on occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity • Dermal/inhalation exposure, genotype, and health risks • Research needs

  3. Adverse Health Effects Associated with Chlorinated Drinking Water • Cancer • Colorectal • Bladder • Reproductive Effects • Spontaneous abortion • Still birth • Low-birth weight • Neural tube defects

  4. Occurrence, Genotoxicity, and Carcinogenicity of Regulated and Emerging Disinfection By-products in Drinking Water: A Review and Roadmap for ResearchSD Richardson, MJ Plewa, ED Wagner,R Schoeny, DM DeMariniMutation Research 636:178-242, 2007

  5. Genotoxicity of Regulated DBPs

  6. Carcinogenicity of Regulated DBPs

  7. Features of IARC-Declared Human Carcinogens[RW Tennant, Mutat Res 286:111, 1993][MD Shelby, E Zeiger, Mutat Res 234:257, 1990] • Are trans-species carcinogens, e.g, they cause tumors in both rats and mice. • Frequently cause tumors at multiple organs. • Are generally mutagenic across a variety of genotoxic endpoints, e.g., gene and chromosomal mutation.

  8. 5 Regulated DBPs with Featuresof Human Carcinogens aIARC 2B = possible/EPA B2 = probable human carcinogen.

  9. 9 Halonitromethanes 5 Iodo-acids 4 Other halo-acids 9 Iodo- & other THMs 12 MX compounds 13 Haloamides 10 Haloacetonitriles 1 Tribromopyrrole 5 Nitrosamines 7 Aldehydes 1 Chlorate 76 Unregulated DBPs at ng-μg/L

  10. Carcinogenicity of Unregulated DBPs

  11. Unregulated DBPs with Some Featuresof Human Carcinogens

  12. Mutagenicity of Pool Water

  13. Review of Chemistry and Health Effects of Swimming Pool Water[C Zwiener et al., ES&T 41:363, 2007] • Swimming may be a model system for analyzing effects of dermal/inhalation exposure to DPBs. • Swimmers have 1.6-fold increased risk of bladder cancer. • Molecular epidemiology study of swimmers is currently underway in Barcelona, Spain; pool water is mutagenic

  14. PISCINA Projecte d’Investigació Sobre Compostos Irritants en Natació Research Project on Irritants in Swimming Pools http://www.creal.cat/piscina/index.htm

  15. Mutagenicity of XAD/Ethyl Acetate Extractfrom Chlorinated Pool in Salmonella TA100

  16. Mutagenic Potencies of Pool Water Extracts in Salmonella TA100 –S9

  17. [DeMarini et al., Environ Mol Mutagen 26:270, 1995]

  18. Ozonation/Chlorination < Mutagenic Than ChlorinationLD Claxton et al. (2008) J Toxicol Environ Health A 71:1187

  19. Brominated THMs Account for 30-65% of Mutagenicity of Pool Waters

  20. What about Alternative Disinfection? • In the 1990s, alternative disinfection methods (ozonation or chloramination) were promoted to replace chlorination to reduce the levels of THMs. • An EPA survey in 2004 showed that the new methods reduce levels of THMs, but they promote formation of new compounds, such as iodo-THMs, iodo-acids, and bromonitromethanes.

  21. Mechanistic Issues • Activation of brominated halomethanes by GSTT1-1, leading to bladder cancer • Dermal/inhalation exposure may be more important than oral exposure for risk for bladder cancer associated with chlorinated drinking water

  22. Activation of Halomethanes,but Not Chloroform, to Mutagens by GSTT1-1RA Pegram et al.Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 144:183, 1997

  23. First Pharmacokinetic Studyof a DBP in Humans Disposition of Bromodichloromethane in Humans Following Oral and Dermal Exposure TL Leavens et al., Toxicol Sci 99:432, 2007

  24. Subject’s arm was in water for 1 h with bromodichloromethane(~50 ppm or 50 ng/kg), or subject drank water giving 50 ng/kg exposure. BDCM was metabolized much faster by the oral route than dermal route of exposure.

  25. First Cancer Epidemiology Study of Drinking Water That Assessed Route of Exposure Bladder Cancer and Exposure to Water Disinfection By-products Through Ingestion, Bathing, Showering and Swimming in Pools [CM Villanueva et al. Am J Epidemiol 165:148, 2007]

  26. Model for Br-THM-Induced Bladder Cancer[MK Ross & RA Pegram,Tox Appl Pharmacol 195:166, 2004] Dermal Oral ↑ Blood Human (BDCM) Liver (↓ Blood) Rodent (BDCM) Inactivated by CYP2E1 Activated by GSTT1-1 in kidney & intestine Salmonella/GSTT1-1 CYP2E1/GSTT1-1 (rodent sites) Human Mol Epi ↑ Bladder cancer in GSTT1-1+ ↓ Bladder cancer in GSTT1-1-

  27. Global Gene Expression (Microarray) Studies May Provide More Insight into the Mechanisms by Which DBPs Cause Health Effects

  28. Global Gene Expression Changes byMX (Cl-furanone) in Salmonella TA100W.O. Ward et al., BMC Bioinformatics, 8:378, 2007 • MX altered expression of 448 genes • Pathways altered included • Heme, porphyrin, & cobalamin biosynthesis • Oxidative phosphorylation • Protein section and trafficking • Nitrogen, sulfur, and pyruvate metabolism • DNA replication, recombination, and repair • Cell division • MX homologues altered expression of other genes and pathways (Ward et al., in press)

  29. Structural Homologues of MX Alter Expression of Unique Genes and PathwaysWO Ward (2009) Environ Mol Mutagen, in press. Homologues altered expression of only 2 genes and no pathways in common

  30. Changes in Global Gene Expression by Water Extracts in Liver Cells in vitroL.M. Crosby et al., J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 71:1195, 2008 • Water from Miami River, Ohio, USA had iodide and bromide added, then was either chlorinated or ozonated/chlorinated, concentrated ~130X by reverse osmosis, volatile DBPs added back. • Rat liver cells were exposed for 24 h • Concentrates altered expression of 547 genes • Pathways altered included • Oxidative stress and cell-cycle arrest • Suppression of apoptosis and reduction in DNA repair • Inflammation/immune response • Increased expression of neurotransmission genes

  31. Research Needs • Prioritize DBPs for testing ● 6 regulated DBPs still have significant genotoxicity data gaps, and 1 has never been tested for carcinogenicity. ● 14 unregulated DBPs have no genotoxicity toxicology data, but 2 are carcinogens. ● 29 unregulated DBPs at μg/L levels are genotoxic.

  32. Systematic generation of quantitative genotoxicity data ● ~70 DBPs studied systematically and quantitatively for DNA damage (comet assay) in CHO cells (M. Plewa, U. of IL) ● ~20 DBPs studied similarly in Salmonella (D. DeMarini, EPA) 3. Studies on route of exposure & genotype ● Rodent studies (dermal-bladder/colon) ● Human studies (experimental & epi)

  33. Chemical identification of unknown fraction of drinking water ● >50% of total organic halide (TOX) and assimilable organic carbon (AOC) have not been identified as specific compounds. Savitz et al. (2006) epi study on chloraminated water showed correlation between TOX and pregnancy loss. ● Additional analytical studies should be conducted in concert with toxicological studies.

  34. Evaluate DBPs from alternative disinfection methods ● chloramine, ozone, and chlorine dioxide ● UV and membrane technologies • Evaluate use of bioassays for assessing source-water and drinking water quality ● Salmonella assay used already in a region of Brazil for source-water assessment and regulation ● Salmonella assay literature on drinking water mutagenicity is extensive but not linked well to chemical analysis.

  35. Complex mixture studies ● >600 identified DBPs, many are toxic, exposed via oral, dermal, and inhalation. ● This complexity is not reflected in any of the toxicology studies of individual DBPs. ● Need for bioassay-directed fractionation of water extracts for genotoxicity, from different source waters and treatment methods. • Review of reproductive and developmental studies ● Merge with current review to permit a sound, scientific assessment of current regulations and directions for future research.

  36. Is Chlorinated Water Really a Health Risk?SE Hrudey (2009) Water Res 43:2057 • No DBP causes bladder cancer in rodents. • The epidemiology may be biased due to use of small/rural well water supplies instead of large/urban supplies using only ozonation or no disinfection to obtain populations exposed to low levels of DBPs.

  37. The Challenge of Water Disinfection Bathing Drinking Swimming

  38. The collective enterprise of creative thinking and skeptical thinking, working together, keeps the field on track. Carl Sagan, 1996

  39. US EPA Larry Claxton Anthony DeAngelo Susan Richardson Rex Pegram Ann Richard Mike Madden Lance Brooks Sarah Warren Melissa Shelton Nancy Hanley William Ward Doug Wolf Rita Schoeny Acknowledgments UNC Bijit Kundu Dan Shaughnessy Courtney Granville Postdocs Amal Abu-Shakra Matthew Ross Stefano Landi Carol Swartz Collaborators Robert Franzen Leif Kronberg Michael Plewa Elizabeth Wagner

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