Review purpose & methodology

1. The Social Consequences of Economic Inequality for Canadian Children:A Review of the Canadian Literature

2. Review purpose & methodology • Purpose: • to uncover the educational, health, social justice and employment consequences to children of socio-economic inequality. • Methodology: • 12 databases searched for literature published between 1996-2006. • 828 articles initially captured. • 34 articles with following characteristics retained: • Canadian population; • Quantitative methodology; • Measurable outcomes; • Socio-economic inequality as ‘independent variable.’

3. Academic educational consequences (based on 12 studies) • Higher family-level SES is correlated with better academic outcomes across ages. • Children in ‘persistently poor’ households are at greater risk of failure and poor school performance. • Children in welfare dependent families are at particular risk (compared to working poor). • Community SES appears to have modest effects over and above family level SES.

4. Behavioural educational consequences (based on 8 studies) • Family and neighbourhood SES are negatively correlated with anti-social behaviours (i.e. more wealth, fewer problem behaviours) and weakly positively correlated with pro-social behaviours. • Low SES may be a stronger predictor of problem behaviour among younger children than older children. • Except among the most disadvantaged, resistance to school does not appear to increase at lower income levels.

5. Emotional and physical health consequences (based on 6 and 8 studies) • Low SES is correlated with heightened risk of emotional difficulties in children of various ages. • (e.g. anxiety/ depression; destructive behaviour; aggression) • Compared to high SES children, low SES children: • Smoke more frequently; exercise less frequently; manifest STDs more frequently; are hospitalized as infants more frequently; spend more days sick; self-assess health more negatively. • Compared to high SES mothers, low SES mothers: • Follow infant feeding recommendations less frequently; rate their infant’s health as ‘less than excellent’ more frequently.

6. Employment consequences (based on 2 studies) • Social class does not appear to be associated with employment aspirations. • Most youth aspire to ‘middle class’ jobs. • Sibling incomes are more tightly correlated than neighbour’s incomes, suggesting the importance of families in eventual labour market attainments.

7. Social justice consequences (based on 5 studies) • Children in chronic poverty more likely to be emotionally, physically or sexually victimized by age 17. • Degree and type of risk appears mediated by geography, gender and race. • Low SES immigrants face bigger acculturation problems than high SES immigrants. • Poor, male Aboriginals are especially vulnerable. • Different risks to males and females are exacerbated by low SES.

8. Moderating variables • Effects of low SES on academic, emotional health and employment outcomes, appear strongly mediated by family characteristics. • Good parenting, family functioning, family cohesiveness, maternal mental health, parent control. • In many cases deleterious SES effects are reduced to statistical insignificance when family variables are introduced. • Although academic mean scores decrease at lower levels of SES, many individual scores do not. • Family functioning variables do not appear to ameliorate the deleterious physical health outcomes. • Active low SES children appear more resilient to poor emotional outcomes.

9. Policy implications related to Ontario’s poverty reduction strategy (PRS) • Policy interventions may often be best aimed at improving family functioning or family environments (PRS core principle: ‘kids live in families’). • Important Ontario PRS initiatives: ‘Parenting and Family Literacy Centres’ (PFLC) and ‘Parents Reaching Out Grants’ (PROG).

10. Policy implications related to Ontario’s poverty reduction strategy • Access to (and success in) education is important to both parents and children. • Long-term key to breaking poverty cycle for children. • Short-term key to better health choices and engagement with child’s education (which predicts child’s success) for parents. • Important Ontario PRS initiatives: Ontario Early Years Centres, Parenting and Family Literacy Centres (PFLC); Parents Reaching Out Grants (PROG); full day learning; Learning Opportunities grant

11. Policy implications related to Ontario’s poverty reduction strategy • Different populations are likely at different degrees and kinds of risk due to low SES; different policies might need to target different groups (PRS core principle: ‘diversity’). • Aboriginals, immigrants, welfare dependent (vs. working poor) and younger children may be at most heightened risks due to low SES. • Important Ontario PRS initiatives; Akwe:go; priority given to programs in communities with Aboriginal populations; newcomer settlement program; increase of Ontario Child Benefit.

12. Policy implications related to Ontario’s poverty reduction strategy • Physical health outcomes can be improved for low SES children. • Opportunities to participate in safe, healthy physical activities may be disproportionately unavailable to low SES children. • Physical health outcomes appeared most easily improved by direct income transfers. • Physical health appeared positively correlated to mental health. • Important Ontario PRS initiatives: Ontario Child Benefit; After School Program; Student Nutrition Program.