SPEECH ACTS

1. SPEECH ACTS Emel Demirci-Özkan Örenli Cahit Erdi Anlatır Selin Uygur-Nurşen İnalöz Özge Soylu-Burak Karagün

2. SPEECH ACTS While a language may be used for innumerable purposes, all languages are capable of at least three functions; • To pass on information • To glean information • To issue commands

3. Hence, we use language for any of these three core purposes of • ↘ Asserting something ( declaratives) • ↘ Asking something ( interrogatives) • ↘ Commanding something ( imperatives)

4. We engage in speech act, and we perform an act by making an utterance. These types of speech act seem to be universal to all human languages. ① Declaratives • ─ an assertion • ─ a statement made in order to pass on information • ↘ The chairman is blocking social interaction • ↘ You are sitting on the floor

5. ② Interrogatives • ─ a request for information, posed as a question with the intention of gleaning information • ↘ Why are you sitting on the floor? • ↘ Are you sitting on the floor?

6. ③ Imperatives A command, uttered with the intention of getting someone to do something. • ↘ Sit on the floor! • ↘ Vote for me!

7. DECLARATIVES Presented by Özkan Örenli

8. Declaratives are usually the leastmarked sentence type and are typically used for statements, such as;  They are swimming. DECLARATIVES affirmative negative

9. AFFIRMATIVE • The puppy is playing with a ball. • The man was standing behind the blue truck. • The weather is nice. NEGATIVE • The puppy is not playing with a ball. • The man was not standing behind the blue truck. • The weather is not nice.

10. Affirmative Declaratives Affirmative declaratives are typically used fordescriptive speech acts, such as asserting something, describing something, complaining or bragging about something, predicting or promising something, and so on. It is typically the most frequent sentencetype, it is typically the least restricted in its distribution, and it may typicallycombine with all the TMA options of the language.

11. Sheko (Afro-Asiatic (North Omotic): Ethiopia)

12. Tauya (Trans-New-Guinea (Madang): Papua New Guinea)

13. NEGATIVE DECLARATIVES Presented by Cahit Erdi Anlatır

14. Negation • A negation reverses the truth of a Proposition. The declarative Mary is drinking tea statesthe actuality that Mary is drinking tea. If we add a negative markes we reverse this actuality. Marry is not drinking tea • The strategies may differ but all known languages have a way of forming a Negative Declarative.

15. Clausal and Constiuent Negation • This type negates an entire clause, giving a negative counterpart to an affirmative declarative, as in ‘Marry is not drinking tea’ • A constiuent negation negates only a particular constiuent in the clause, such as NP negation as in No tea could be found, where the negative NO only refers to the NP tea and not to the entire clause.

16. Negative Pronouns Negative Adverbs • Nothing could be found • Hiçbirşey bulunamadı • Nobody can do that • Marry never drinks tea • Aslı asla çay içmez

17. The negation can have different scope over the sentence. Scope essentially refers to that section which is affected by the meaning of particular form. In English scope over everything that comes after it. Compare : 1) I deliberately didn’t step on the snail 2) I didn’t deliberately step on the snail in the first sentence it was a conscious and premedicated act to not to step on the snail but in the second one I did step on the snail but the act was accidential.

18. In all known languages clausal negation is realized through morpholgy one way or another. As Dryer indicates that ‘there are no known istances of languages in which negation is realized by a change in word order or by intonation and all languages have negative morphemes’. Languages tend to have either negative particles or negatives affixes such as English with the particle not or Gaagudju with the particle gaayu. This strategy is spread all over the world. Gaagudju (Australian: Australia) gaayu i – n –yii- ngi neg 3I-IRR-go-past ‘he didn’t go’

19. The second largest group in Dryer’s database forms negative declarative sentences by way of a negative affix. This is also a strategy spread all over the world, except in the largely isolating Southeast Asian languages. Chichewa is an example of such a language, with its negative prefix si- or –s if it precedes a vowel. Chichewa (Niger,Congo,Bantoid:Malawi,Mozambique Mkângo s- ú -ku-wá-pwhwány-a maûngu III.lion Neg-III.SM-PRES-VI.OBJ-smash-FV VI.pumpkins

20. The remaining types of strategies all make up proportionally rather smaller groups of languages. In Dryer’s sample the negative declarative is formed through a type of auxiliary verb which inflects for person and number in the same way as other auxilaries. Finnish is an example of such a language, as shown in repeated here for convenience. Finnish (Uralic (Finnic):Finland en tule kotilin Neg.1SG come home.ILL

21. In the auxilary en is inflected for person and number, in this case first person singular. While this is a comparatively rare strategy, languages with auxilary verb negatives are found in most parts of the world, but are especially prominent northern Eurasia in a belt stretching from Finland to the Russian far East, along the North American Pacific coast and in a cluster in Central Africa. Auxilary verb negatives are completely absent in Australia, Europe (except for Finland) and the Middle East in Dryer’s sample.

22. In 73 languages, clustered mainly in West Africa,Southeast Asia and the South Pacific Islands, it is not possible to determine if the negator is an Auxilary or a particle. For example, if a language has little or no mophology and the verb carries no inflection, a negative word may be an auxilary without any inflection (just like the other verbs) but it may also be a particle. In Tinrin, for example, the negative is not inflected but neither is the verb. Tinrin: (Austronesian (Oceanic): New Caledonia nrâsee trò warra nrâ toni 3.SG NEG arrive yet SM PN In cases like this example it is not possible to determine wheter the negative word see should be considered a particle or auxilary verb although for some languages there might be syntactic criteria that indicate how the negative is best classified.

23. A small group of 21 languages found in all parts of the world in Dryer’s sample have both a negative affix and a negative word. In Orokaiva negation is expressed with the suffix –ae except for those clauses that are in the future tense or habitual aspect, for which the particle mane isused Orokaiva (Trans-New Guinea (Binanderean): Papua New Guinea na pamb-ae na mane pamba -so- n- a 1sg-go-neg 1sg-NEG go-FUT-1.SG-IND

24. Double Negation French (Indo-European) • Je ne veux pas manger 1.sg-Neg-want-Neg-eat • Nous ne voulons pas aller 1.PL-NEG-want-NEG-go Makaa (Niger-Congo (Bantoid mӘâ-câl-έ mӘ-l Әndú • Finally 120 languages in Drayer’s sample have double negation,i.e. Two negative simultaneous morphemes • In Makaa this double negation is expressed through the parafix a-...(H) –έ and high tone on the verb stem

25. Another secondary strategy in negative declaratives may be change of word order as in Lokaa where affirmative declaratives are typically SOV Lokaa (Niger-Congo(Cross River):Nigeria Úbi ó-kpèèyi kò-póó PN I.AGR-sell XI-cup S V O Ubi sold a cup Úbi kò-póóòó-kpèèyi PN XI-cup NEG-I.AGR.-sell S O V Ubi didn’t sell a cup Notice that the tone of the verb stem -kpèèyi ‘sell’ remains the same in both sentences. The negative affects the word order not the tone

26. Another secondary effect of negation may be the number of TMA distinctions allowed; in languages where TMA distincitions are affected by negation, there are typically fewer distinctions in the negative than the affirmative.

27. In Burmese the punctual aspect and the realis/irrealis modal distinctions are lost in the negative • Thu yau’ pi d. Tin hpei a ye’ ma-thau’ hpu: 3sg reach PUNCT PN liquor NEG-drink NEG (S)he has arrived Tin Pe doesn’t drink liquor. • Thu ma-yau’ hpu: e. Thu pyo: ma-la 3.SG NEG-arrive NEG 3sg speak IRR-Q (S)he hasn’t arrived Will (S)he speak? c. Tin hpei a ye’ thau’ tha-la f. Thu ma-pyo: hpu: PN liquor drink R-Q 3.sg NEG-speak-NEG Does Tin Pe drink liquor ? (S)he won’t speak The punctual aspect in (a) as well as the realis and irrealis mood in (c and e) respectively are all neutralized with the negative as can be seen in (b,d and f)

28. These secondary strategies are what may be called asymmetric negations. In symmetric negations ‘ the structure of the negative is identical to the structure of the affirmative, except for the presence of the negative markers’ while in asymmetric negations the structure differs from the affirmative one way or another. English is an example of a language classed with emphatic sentences. Sentences like He has eaten versus He has not eaten exhibit symmetric negation. However; asymetry is exhibited with respect to the distinction between emphatic and non-emphatic sentences which is lost in negation.

29. INTERROGATIVES Presented by Selin Uygur

30. INTERROGATIVES • All languages have some way of gleaning information, that is, of forming interrogatives with the purpose of extracting information. Interrogatives may take the shape of different kinds of questions. If the information sought after is merely comfirmation or disconfirmation of the truth value of an utterance, we form polar questions. If we need more elaborate information, we form content questions. • Will you come home today Polar questions • When will you come homeContent question

31. POLAR QUESTIONS • With polar questions the expected answer is typically Yes or No although there are usually a few other alternatives available such as Perhaps. Most languages have specific strategies for forming polar questions. • Languages have a distinct intonation pattern for polar questions. Often a polar question has a rising intonation, as in case in English (For example you are listening to yourself first saying You are home then Are you home?) But, this is not a universal. Hawai’i Creole English, for example, has a falling intonation for polar questions. These types of languages are spread over the world. Italian is an example of such a language

32. Italian (Indo-European) • Laura viene con noi (statement) • PN come 3SG. Pres. IND with 1PL • ‘Laura is coming with us.’ • Laura viene con noi (question) • PN come.3SG.PRES.IND with 1PL • ‘Is Laura coming with use?’ (source: personal knowledge)

33. Additionally intonation as a strategy is underrepresented in Dryer’s map since a language has only coded for that strategy if there are no other grammatical means for forming a polar question in the language. However in some languages, intonation may be the most common means of indicating a polar question, but if some other method is used a minority of the time, then the language is shown on the map according to that method. It is common for languages to combine intonation with any of the strategies discussed below. • Quite rare strategy for marking polar questions is through change of word order. Swedish is an example of a language that employs inverted word order to form polar questions.

34. Swedish (Indo- European (Germanic): Sweeden) a) hankommer 3SG.M come.PREs ‘He is coming.’ b) kommerhan come.PRES 3SG:M ‘Is he coming?’ • A very rare strategy indeed is to mark polar questions through the absence of a declarative marker. For example;

35. Puquina a) cuhana-qu-ench b) cuhana-pi believe-1S.SG-DECL believe-2S ‘I believe.’ ‘Do you believe?’ In the obligatory declarative marker -(e)nch/-(a)nch suffixes to the verb, while in the absence of this marker indicates that the utterance is a polar question. A rather more common strategy is to have a special verbal inflection signalling the polar question. Korean is an example of such a language with its question marker suffix –ni or –nyi. • Korean pi ka o-ni/o-(nu)-nyi rain NOM come-Q/come-IND-Q ‘Is it raining?’

36. The by far most common strategy in Dryer’s database is to have question particles, which may either be a free particle or a clitic added to the declarative sentence. For example; Ainu pirka-p ne ya rich-person be Q ‘Is (he) a rich person?’

37. In the particle ya signals that the utterance is a question. In Ainu this particle sentence final. This is the most common pattern for languages with question particles. Also, question particles may be sentence initial. Question particles or clitics may in other positions in the sentence. Languages may have tag questions which can be seen as a type of question particle but “contribute a certain bias by raising expectations toward either positive or negative answer”. English has tags where the negative tag presupposes a positive answer and a positive tag a negative answer: a) You do know it, don’t you? (Expected answer: Yes I do.) b) You don’t know it, do you? (Expected answer: No, Idon’t.)

38. Tags tend to occur at the end of the sentence irrespective of the basic word order of the language. They are sometimes considered a shortened version of a different strategy, the disjunctive-negative structure, also known as ‘A-not-A-construction.’ For example; Mandarin Ta chi-bu-chi pingguo 3SG eat-not-eat apple ‘Does she/he eat apples?’ In the polar question is formed by giving the verb (chi ‘eat’) twice, once positive and once negated. It may be that tags originate from A-not-A constructions and that question particles in turn originate from tags and the A-not-A construction. However, some languages use the A-not-A construction together with a question particle.

39. Turkish Ahmetsinema-ya git-ti mi git-me-di mi PN cinema-DAT go-past Q go-NEG-PAST Q ‘Did Ahmet go to the cinema (or didn’t he) • In Turkish the A-not-A construction is optional and when used, combines with the question particle. • A few languages in Dryer’s database to be exact, have both question particles and an interrogative suffix –a which may either occur alone or together. • Kashmiri (k’a) tsigatsh-kh-a: paga:hgari Q 2SG go-2SGPS-Q tomorrow home ‘Will you go home tomorrow?’

40. One single language in Dryer’s database, ChalcatongoMixtec lacks any kind of differentiation between statements and polar questions. • ChalcatongoMixtec • naba?a=rolibru=ro • have=2 have=2 • ‘You have your book’/ ‘Do you have your book?’ • The utterance can be interpreted either as a statement or a question; there is no overtmarking and no intonational difference between meanings.

41. Content Questions Presented by Nurşen İnalöz

42. Content Questions • Content questions contain an interrogative phrase and demand a specicic answer containing other information than just a confirmation or nonconfirmation. In other words, a simple Yes or No is not an adequate answer to a content question. An example of a content question is; • What are you reading? Where the answer would have to give specific information, such as, ‘Shakespeare’ or something similar.

43. An interrogative phrase may consist of only a question word, for example, ‘what are you reading?’but may also consist of more than that ‘which book are you reading now?. • The interrogative phrase replaces the constituent asked about, thereby indicating what kind of information is being requested. For example; • John read the book, in a corresponding content question, replaced by the interrogative phrase who .who read the book?

44. The interrogative phrase in English is by default in sentence initial position, leaving a gap: • John read [the detective story]ₒ • [what]ₒ did John read -------? • This movement is called ‘ fronting’.

45. English require the interrogative phrase to be in sentence initial position , however, such as Dumi language, where the interrogative phrase is in the same position as the constituent. Dumi (Sino-Tibetan (Bodic): Nepal) A) an-a mwo: a-dzi-t-a 2SG-ERG. What MS-eat-NPST-23S S O V B) Khi:bi-ɂa aɳ a-ka:ts-ә Dog-ERG 1SG MS-bite-1SG S O V The question word mwo: ‘what’ in a is an object and placed in the same position as an object in a declarative sentence b.

46. All known languages have a set of words that are used for content questions, but not all languages have specific question words. In Wari, for example, a content question is formed by placing a form of the demonsrative ma’ in initial position and leaving a corresponding gap in the clausal syntax. Wari (Chapacura- Wanhan (Chapacura-Wanhan):Brazil) ma’ co pa’ nana hwam pain that.PROX.HEARER INFL.M/F.RP kill 3PL.RP fish PREP.3N S V O b. mam wac ‘ina-on hwam pain quit INST cut 1SG.RP-3SM fish prep.3N knife V S O

47. Languages may also have interrogative verbs, that is, verbs that in themselves function as a question word. Lavukaleve is an example of such a language: • Lavukaleve (Solomons East Papuan (Lavukaleve):Solomons Islands) • me-kalem vasia-m • 2PL-father be. Where- SG.M • ‘Where is your (pl) father?’ The verb vasia ‘be.where’ in this sentence is in itself a question word, not properly translatable into English, since English does not have interrogative verbs.

48. IMPERATIVES Presented by Özge Soylu

49. IMPERATIVES • All known languages have some kind of strategy for expressing directive speech acts or impreatives.speech acts meant to get addressee to perform some kind of actions.imperatives are typically used to issue; • commands; sit down! • requests:please switch off the light • entreaties: let me try is out! • advices:don’t bike without a helmet! • warnings: watch out for dog! • instructions:stir a spoonful of port in the sauce • wishes: have fun! Imperatives may be positive or negative,in that the former directs the addressee towards an action that sould be done

50. POSITIVE IMPERATIVES Positive imperatives usually simply termed imperatives are used to initate action,ın addition to the different morphological strategies for marking imperatives. It sould be noted in some languages such as Abkhaz make a gender distinction in singular imperatives. for example; • w-c'a (GO!) male addressee • b-c'a (GO!) female addressee • sw-c'a ( GO!) plural addressee In Tashihiyt the gender distinction appears in the plural but not in singular.For example; • du: (GO!) said to one male or female addressee • du-iat: (GO!) said to more than one male addressee • du-iamt:(GO!) said to more than one female addressee