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Labour market segregation between men and women

Labour market segregation between men and women. What to measure How to measure it. Contents. A definition Causes Types Indicators Data needs. A definition. Labour market segregation in general:

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Labour market segregation between men and women

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  1. Labour market segregationbetween men and women What to measure How to measure it

  2. Contents • A definition • Causes • Types • Indicators • Data needs ILO Bureau of Statistics

  3. A definition • Labour market segregation in general: Practice of restricting particular population group(s) to certain (economic/non-economic) activities in order to maintain the economic advantages and higher social status of the other population group(s) • Types of labour market segregation: • SEX • Race, ethnicity • Religion • Migrants/non-migrants ILO Bureau of Statistics

  4. Causes • De jure - enforced by law • Laws forbidding/hindering women from working or from doing certain jobs • De facto – widespread individual preferences, social customs • Traditional female roles of family caretakers impede/encumber that they work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work, on an equal footing as men • Subordination to men means that women are not free to work (in certain types of jobs) or look for (certain types of) work without approval of husband/father/brother • Social and educational conditioning that hinder competitiveness to allow women to work on an equal footing as men ILO Bureau of Statistics

  5. Types of segregation • In the entry to/exit from the labour market • In the types of economic activities carried out • In their labour inputs • In their returns to labour ILO Bureau of Statistics

  6. Entry/exit • Do they work ? Employment • Do they look for work? Unemployment • Do they work or look for work? Labour force • Do they enter and exit the labour market? Labour turnover, life cycle patterns ILO Bureau of Statistics

  7. Types of activities • The type of work they do - occupations • The type of establishment they work in - industries • The type of contract - status in employment • The type of employer - institutional sector • The size of establishment where they work • Where they work - place of work • Hazardousness of their work – occupational injuries and disease • Their voice – union density and representation • Social security coverage ILO Bureau of Statistics

  8. Labour inputs • How much do they work - hours actually worked/usually worked, overtime, part-time/full-time • How inconvenient are the hours they work - Night work, shift work, weekend work • How often are they absent from work and for what reasons – family reasons, economic reasons, social reasons ILO Bureau of Statistics

  9. Returns to labour • Income from employment • Basic wages • Overtime payments • Fringe benefits • Social security benefits • Regular and irregular payments ILO Bureau of Statistics

  10. Indicators • Types of indicators • Indicators to measure segregation in: • The entry to/exit from the labour market • The types of economic activities carried out • Labour inputs • Returns to labour ILO Bureau of Statistics

  11. Types of indicators • Measures of relationship • Ratios : relation between two quantities (a/b) • Proportions, percentages : quotient between one part and the total (a/(a+b)) • Index numbers • Measures of central tendency • Mean, median, mode • Measures of variability • Frequency distribution, range, standard deviation • Shape of the distribution • Skewness, kurtosis ILO Bureau of Statistics

  12. Index numbers • Value in relation to a standard value (often =100) • When are index numbers used • Summarize large quantities of qualitative information ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F | • Indicate variations in time Wage index = (Wt – W(t-1))/W(t-1) • Types • Simple index number Gender pay gap = Wm-Wf • Weighted index number Laspeyres price index = ∑ Pi1Qi0/ ∑ Pi0Qi0 ILO Bureau of Statistics

  13. Indicators to measure entry/exit • Activity rate • Gross: Labour force/total population * 100 • Net: Labour force/working age population * 100 • Employment rate • Employed persons/working age population * 100 • Unemployment rate • Unemployed persons/Labour force * 100 ILO Bureau of Statistics

  14. Indicators to measure activities carried out • Share of women in category i Women in category i/total workers in category i * 100 = Fi/Ni * 100 • Percentage of all women in category I Women in category i/all women * 100 = Fi/F * 100 • Sex ratio (in category i) Women in category i/Men in category i * 100 = Wi/Mi * 100 • Dissimilarity index (ID) ID= ½ ∑ | Mi/M - Fi/F| ILO Bureau of Statistics

  15. Indicators to measure labour inputs • Distribution of workers by hours worked per week • Percentage women/men who work less/more than x hours per week • Distribution of workers by working time arrangements ILO Bureau of Statistics

  16. Indicators to measure returns to labour • Gender wage gap (Wm – Wf)/Wm * 100 • Gender wage gap corrected for differences in occupations/industries 1/N ∑Ni * (Wmi - Wfi)/Wmi • Average wage 1/N ∑ Wi • Median wage - wage below and above which half of the population is found • Distribution of workers by categories of income earned ILO Bureau of Statistics

  17. Data needs • Complete worker coverage • Sufficient detail • Explanatory variables ILO Bureau of Statistics

  18. Complete worker coverage • Coverage because of the SNA-93 definition of work • Coverage in labour statistics concepts • Coverage because of use of short or long reference periods • Seasonal/casual activities ILO Bureau of Statistics

  19. Definition of work, SNA-93 Productive activities Activities that produce services for the market or that are carried out for payment Activities that produce unpaid services for the consumption of own/another household Activities that produce goods (for the market or for free) Economic activities Non-economic activities ILO Bureau of Statistics

  20. Treatment of non-market activities, SNA-93 Source: Based on System of National Accounts, 1993. ILO Bureau of Statistics

  21. Coverage in concepts • Employment • Unemployment • Informal sector • Income • Industrial disputes ILO Bureau of Statistics

  22. Coverage in employment • Persons at work for at least one hour • Persons who work a few hours and whose social role is to be a housewife, student or retired • The self employed • Unpaid family workers • Armed forces • Unpaid workers • Persons not at work • Extended absences ILO Bureau of Statistics

  23. Coverage in unemployment • Actively seeking work • Willingness to wrok • Being available to work • Any work • Only at home ILO Bureau of Statistics

  24. Coverage in informal sector • Sectors often excluded: • Agriculture • Domestic work • Outwork/homework • Work for the benefit of own household • Main and secondary jobs • Workers without fixed work location ILO Bureau of Statistics

  25. Coverage in income • Components of income: • Basic wages • Bonuses • Payments in kind and services • Social security benefits • Family-related payments ILO Bureau of Statistics

  26. Coverage in industrial disputes • Legal or official disputes • Minimum duration of disputes • Workers directly and indirectly involved ILO Bureau of Statistics

  27. Sufficient detail • The more detail, the clearer it is to see gender differences • Examples • Sample size may not always allow the detail required • In household surveys • In establishment surveys ILO Bureau of Statistics

  28. Examples of sufficient detail • Occupations • Professionals by type: doctors vs nurses, physicists vs teachers • Managers in small vs large firms • Craftworkers in mining vs clothes manufacturing • Status in employment • Regular vs. casual employees • Subsistence workers and homeworkers vs employers • Income • Basic pay vs overtime pay, bonuses and social security contributions • Hours of work • Normal hours vs overtime and absence from work ILO Bureau of Statistics

  29. Explanatory variables • All these indicators should be calculated not only by sex, but by: • Levels of education • Age groups • Family context • Marital status • Presence and number of preschool children • Presence of elderly persons requiring care • Therefore, statistics should be readily disaggregated by these variables ILO Bureau of Statistics

  30. stat/ilo.org www.ilo.org/stat http://laborsta.ilo.org

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