Closing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

1. Closing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Paul Wilson WPUI Advances in Nuclear

2. What is the Nuclear Fuel Cycle? FuelFabrication Enrichment Separation Reactors Conversion Mining Used FuelStorage GeologicDisposal The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

3. Closing the Nuclear Fuel Cycle • Front-end • Uranium resources • Life-cycle emissions • Back-end • Used Fuel Policy • Yucca Mountain • Closing the fuel cycle • Waste Disposal • Resource Extension • Separations technologies • Nuclear Non-proliferation The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

4. Uranium Resources 71 years at current consumption The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

5. Megatons to Megawatts • Convert high-enriched uranium (HEU) to nuclear fuel • >80 MT US weapons material • 500 MT Russian weapons material • Currently providing ~50% of nuclear fuel supply • 10% of US electricity • Similar program beginning for Pu/MOX The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

6. Enrichment Technology • Gaseous diffusion • Energy intensive • Original commercial scale technology • Gas centrifuge • ~4% of the energy consumption of diffusion • All new facilities (LES in NM) • Laser-based • Renewed interest The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

7. Global Enrichment Capacity Ref: Uranium Information Center: http://www.uic.com.au/nip33.htm The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

8. Life-cycle Emissions Ref:Fusion Technology Institute FDM-1261: http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/pdf/fdm1261.pdf The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

9. Life-cycle Emissions • 60% of emissions from fuel cycle front-end • Mostly emissions from electricity used for enrichment • Assumes 68% fossil-fueled electricity grid • Emissions may increase as U-ore grade decreases • Emissions may decrease as • Centrifuges replace diffusion, and • Grid increases low-emission fraction The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

10. What is “Nuclear Waste”? B A The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

11. The 3 C’s of Used Nuclear Fuel Compact … Contained … Cared for • Imagine all your electricity for an entire lifetime was generated by nuclear energy • About 1 million kWh (2006 EIA) • About 1 soda-can of used nuclear fuel The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

12. The 3 C’s of Used Nuclear Fuel Compact … Contained … Cared for • Fuel itself is solid • Wrapped in metal • Stored in pool/cask The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

13. The 3 C’s of Used Nuclear Fuel Compact … Contained … Cared for • Carefully tracked • Decades of experience in safe handling • Easy to detect and monitor • Paid for in Nuclear Waste Fee The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

14. Nuclear Waste Policy • Federal gov’t (DOE) takes possession of spent nuclear fuel beginning in 1998 • To be placed in permanent deep geologic disposal • Utilities (=consumers) pay $1/MWh into Nuclear Waste Fund • ~$30B as of Q3 2007 (including interest) • ~$560M from WI The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

15. Yucca Mountain The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

16. Yucca Mountain Timeline • 1957: National Academy recommends deep geologic disposal as preferred solution • 1978: Study begins @ Yucca Mtn • 1982: Nuclear Waste Policy Act • 63,000 metric tonnes of spent nuclear fuel in first repository • 1985: Three sites approved for intensive study • 1987: Yucca Mtn selected as preferred site • 2002: Yucca Mtn suitability affirmed by President & Congress • 2006: New Senate Majority leader • Sen. Harry Reid (D-NV) • 2008: Application for license expected at US Nuclear Regulatory Commission for 2017 opening • Current funding level means schedule in question (2021?) The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

17. Repository Regulatory Limits • Fundamental limit: Exposure to public • Nearest humans @ 20 km site boundary • 2005: Updated EPA rule • <15 mrem/y for first 10,000 years • <350 mrem/y for remaining 1,000,000 years • typical US background radiation ~250 mrem/y • Secondary engineering limits • Total inventory of isotopes • Temperature/heat load of facilitiy The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

18. Estimated Dose from Yucca Mtn Ref: DOE Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

19. Estimated Dose from Yucca Mtn Ref: DOE Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

20. Reconsidering Used Fuel Policy • S.784 [110th Congress] • Federal Accountability for Nuclear Waste Storage Act of 2007 • Introduced into the Senate by H. Reid (D-NV) • Amend NWPA to require • Transfer of spent nuclear fuel to independently operated dry cask storage facilities (at plant site!) • Title of waste to be transferred to DOE The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

21. Reconsidering Used Fuel Policy • S.37 [110th Congress] • Nuclear Waste Access to Yucca Act • Introduced into the Senate by P. Dominici (R-NM) • Immediately withdraw land for use as repository • Amend NWPA to • Allow construction of infrastructure before license granted • Repeal capacity limit • Establish rail routes • Establish use of Nuclear Waste Fund • Establish “nuclear waste confidence” The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

22. Integrated Spent Fuel Management • Combination of • At-reactor storage (wet & dry) • Interim centralized storage • Deep geologic disposal • Performance-based licensing • Avoid need to demonstrate performance for first-of-a-kind facility before construction • Study performance and amend as necessary with NRC oversight The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

23. Reduce HLW Extend Resource Manage Proliferation Threat The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

24. Majority of Spent Nuclear Fuel is Not Waste • Typical fresh PWR assembly • 425 kg U • After discharge • 398 kg U • 5 kg Np, Pu, Am, Cm • 22.5 kg FP Similar to depleted U Can be fissioned for energy generation Disposal necessary The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

25. Advanced fuel cycles LWRs/ALWRs Thermal Recycle Fresh U Full Recycle AdvancedFuel Reprocessingw/o Pu Separation Generation IV Reactors The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

26. Minimize High-Level Waste Expanded capacity 12 511 12 5 Thermal Recycle 1 Full Recycle The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

27. Fast Recycle Energy Balance • Current reactors are based on U-235 • 0.71% in natural uranium ore • Fast reactors with multi-recycle are based also on U-238 • 99.29% in natural uranium ore • Extends resource by 140x • 70 years  10,000 years • Already mined depleted U becomes resource The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

28. Depleted Uranium Theoretically centuries of energy content The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

29. Separations History • Primary technology borrowed from weapons program • Aqueous process required separation of Pu from spent fuel • France – La Hague • UK – Sellafield • Japan – Rokkasho • Concern for nuclear proliferation led this being banned by executive order • Carter, 1977 • This was reversed but NWPA (1982) made direct disposal financially preferable The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

30. Modern Separations Technology • Pyroprocessing/Electrochemical • Originally designed for breeder fuel cycles • Separate U & Pu together • UREX+1a • Aqueous process separates all components heavier than U as a single stream (Np, Pu, Am, Cm, etc) • Other variations yield different streams • e.g. Np+Pu & Am+Cm • Never demonstrated at commercial scale The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

31. Cost of Reprocessing • MIT Report (2003) • 0.51 ¢/kWh for once through UOX • 2.24 ¢/kWh for single recycle MOX • 0.79 ¢/kWh for mixed fleet fuel cycle costs • Congressional Budget Office Testimony (2007) • Total PV cost over 50 years • Boston Consulting Group: $1.9B • Kennedy School: $25.8B • Same assumptions: $5.6-10.8B The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

32. Nuclear Non-Proliferation • Global nuclear expansion = • Global expansion of fuel cycle technology, OR • Development of global fuel cycle service market • No technological silver bullet • Some technologies can increase incentives to prefer fuel cycle services over technology deployment The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

33. Reduce Proliferation Risk • Reliable fuel services • Supplier states are most economically attractive option • Internationally guaranteed supply • Small-scale reactors • Small size for growing economies with limited access to capital • Long life cores to minimize refueling • Advanced Safeguards • Technology & diplomacy The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

34. Global Nuclear Energy Partnership Reliable FuelServices ReducedProliferation Risk Proliferation- Resistant Recycling MinimizeNuclearWaste US NuclearPower Small-ScaleReactors Advanced Nuclear Safeguards AdvancedBurnerReactors The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Moving Forward

35. Paul Wilsonwilsonp@engr.wisc.edu energy.wisc.edu