CHAPTER 11

1. CHAPTER 11 The Body Senses and Movement The Body Senses Movement

2. First, back to pain

3. Pain • Pain processing: begins when free nerve endings stimulated by • intense pressure • temperature • damage to tissue. • There are three types of pain receptors. • Thermal pain receptors: respond to extreme heat/cold. • Mechanical pain receptors: respond to intense stimulation like pinching/cutting. • Polymodal pain receptors: activated by • Both thermal and mechanical stimuli • Chemicals released when tissue is injured.

4. endorphins • Endorphins function both as: • Neurotransmitters • Hormones • Act at opiate receptors in many parts of the nervous system. • Pain = one of stimuli that release endorphins • Endorphins released under certain conditions. • Physical stress • Pain • Long term exertion

5. Gate Theory • Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall • In the spinal cord: Pain neurons release: • Glutamate • Substance P: • Neuropeptide involved in pain signaling. • Released only during intense pain stimulation.

6. Gate Theory • Gate theory states that there are two kinds of pain fibers: • Some specific nerve fibers transmit pain to the spinal cord • Input of other nerve fibers inhibits the transmission of pain. • Both groups of pain fibers meet at a sort of ‘mediator' in the spinal cord called the substanciagelatinosa.

7. Gate Theory • Gate theory: Proposes a balance between stimulation of the pain fibers and inhibition of that stimulus, • Pain is perceived only if the pain input overrides the inhibition of pain • Is the sum of the signals transmitting pain + signals transmitting inhibiting of pain • Thus pain is “gated” : If more pain sensation than not pain sensation from free receptors, then perceive sensation as pain

8. Brain response to pain • Periaqueductal gray area: PAG • Brain stem structure • Contains large number of endorphin synapses. • Stimuli like pain and stress cause the release of endorphins in the PAG • Endorphin release inhibits the release of Substance P, closing the pain “gate” in the spinal cord.

10. Cannabinoid receptors • Cannabinoid receptors respond to the active ingredient in marijuana • In rats: blocking cannabinoid receptors in the periaqueductal gray reduces analgesia produced by brief foot shock. • This suggests that cannabinoids also • Are internal pain relievers • Share the neural gating system used by endorphins • May explain ‘pleasure’ sensation • Cannabinoid substances may be useful as analgesics

11. Phantom pain • Phantom pain: • Pain that is experienced as being located in the missing (amputated) limb. • 70% of amputees experience • Phantom pain IS a real sensation: brain not know that limb is missing • Significant problem in post-amputation pain management.

12. Phantom pain • The phantom “pain” originates in the brain. • Neural circuits for movement involve many movement areas • After amputation: missing limb still has neural contribution to a movement • When move your body, those circuits are stimulated • Brain is interpreting the state of the “missing” limb via the stimulation of those old remaining circuits

13. Phantom pain • Awareness of the details of limb's shape/perceived ability to move it tend to fade with time. • Over time, old neural connections fade (no longer stimulated because the limb associated with them is gone) • New circuits form that do not include the neural stimulation caused by the missing limb • Most amputees report continuing to feel some phantom sensations throughout the remainder of their lives.

14. Phantom pain • Neural mechanisms which permit perception of phantom limbs are well recognized: • Major muscles in residual limb tense up several seconds before cramping phantom limb pain begins • Remember: those muscles associated with movement in missing limb • Brain interprets this as if the missing limb itself was cramping

15. Phantom pain • Muscles remain tense for much of duration of episode. • Muscle fatigue sets in • Reduced blood supply • Eventually, pain sensation in remaining muscles • But, because circuits are tied to missing limb, feel as if missing limb is painful!

16. Phantom pain: Treatment • Main treatment is NOT pain meds, but fixing the miscommunication in the brain through BIOFEEDBACK • Why is biofeedback helpful? • Teach the amputee’s brain to recognize that limb is missing • The specific aim of the treatment: • Teach amputees with phantom pain to habitually and unconsciously keep their residual limbs as warm and as relaxed as the intact limb. • Teach them to increase muscle temperature • Teach them to reduce cramping and muscle tension in surrounding area • Disconnect neural patterns involving the missing limb!

17. movement Muscles and detecting movement

18. Three categories of muscles • Skeletal muscles • move the body and limbs. • Are called striated muscles: have striped appearance. • Smooth muscles • produce the movements of the internal organs. • E.g.,small intestine, colon • Cardiac muscles: are the muscles that make up the heart.

19. MUSCLE CELLS • Muscle fibers. • Muscles made up of individual muscle cells or fibers • Muscle fiber made up of myosin filaments and actin filaments. • Muscles controlled by motor neurons • Motor neurons synapse with muscle cell at the neuromuscular junction. • When a motor neuron releases acetylcholine: • The muscle fiber is depolarized, which opens calcium channels. • The calcium influx initiates a series of actions by the myosin that contract the muscle.

20. Detecting Muscle Movement • Muscle spindles: Muscle stretch receptors • Golgi tendon organs: Receptors that detect tension in a muscle. • Central pattern generators • Neuronal networks • Produce rhythmic patterns of motor activity, • E.g., walking, swimming, flying, and breathing. • Central pattern generators may be located in the spinal cord or brain.

21. Agonistic and Antagonistic muscles • Agonist muscles: cause a movement to occur through own contraction • Antagonist muscles: oppose a specific movement. • Controls a motion, slows it down, and returns a limb to its initial position. • If a motion is reversed, agonist and antagonist muscles switch roles. • Simultaneous activation of antagonistic muscles contributes to • Smoother movements, • Precise stopping and starting of movements • Reduction of tremor

23. Motor cortices • The motor cortex consists of three main areas: • Primary motor cortex • TWO major secondary motor areas: • Supplementary motor area • Premotor cortex. • Both primary and secondary areas form a tonotopic map of the body • Again, remember the Homunculus • Greater amounts of cortex devoted to the parts of the body that produce finer movements.

25. Motor cortex functions • Prefrontal cortex: • Initial step in motor planning • Integrates auditory and visual information about the world with information about the body • Body information comes from posterior parietal cortex • Auditory information from temporal area • Visual information from occipital areas • Holds information in memory while selecting appropriate movement and its target.

26. Movement control • Premotor cortex • Begins programming a movement by combining information from the prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex. • Supplementary motor area • Output from the prefrontal cortex flows to SMA • SMA assembles sequences of movements • E.g., eating or playing the piano. • Primary motor cortex responsible for • Execution of voluntary movements: • Cells fire most during the movement instead of prior to it.

27. Basal ganglia: inhibitory control • Basal ganglia: includes several brain areas • The Striatum: putamen and caudate nucleus • Globus pallidus including • Subthalamic nuclei (STN), • Substantia nigra(SN). • Basal ganglia uses information from • Primary motor cortex areas • Secondary motor areas • Somatosensory cortex

29. Basal ganglia send output directly to Primary motor cortex Supplementary motor area Premotor cortex Sent via the thalamus. Basal ganglia smooths movements by Facilitating outputs to thalamus Inhibiting outputs to the thalamus Two major pathways: Direct and Indirect pathways Have opposite net effects on their thalamic target structures: One works directly The other works indirectly Basal ganglia: inhibitor motor control

30. Direct vs. indirect Pathway • The direct pathway • Makes excitatory connections on the thalamic neurons • Thalamic neurons in turn make excitatory connections onto neurons in motor and cognitive areas of the cortex. • Indirect pathway • Produces the net effect of inhibiting thalamic neurons. • When inhibited, the thalamic neurons are then unable to excite motor cortex neurons. • Within normally functioning basal ganglia, a proper balance is achieved between these two pathways.

31. Basal ganglia • That is: A delicate balance must be formed • Direct pathway selectively facilitates a particular motor or cognitive behavior that is necessary for a present task, • Indirect pathway simultaneously inhibits neurons which control competing motor behaviors. • Extra Pyramidal Syndrome: • Dysfunction of these two motor pathways • Results in motor dysfunctions • Symptoms include stationary tremor, uncontrollable limb movements, difficulty walking and poor motor control • Includes Parkinson's, Tardive Dyskinesia and related motor disorders

32. Cerebellum: Yep, more motor control • Cerebellum • Receives information from the motor cortex about an intended movement • Determines the order of muscular contractions and their precise timing. • Cerebellum also uses information from the vestibular system to • Maintain posture and balance • Refine movements • Control eye movements that compensate for head movements

33. cerebellum • Cerebellum composed of two control loops critical for controlling and processing motor behavior • Cerebellum functions: • Improves accuracy of movements • Creates smooth muscle movements • Does this by comparing descending motor commands with information regarding current motor actions. • Cerebellar system makes corrections as necessary to equate current with desired motor sequences, • Acting on the brain stem and cortical motor areas.

34. cerebellum • Because cerebellum receives input from most body senses: Serves as distinct feed-back loop for sensory-motor coordination • Cerebellum can be said to • Compare whatthe body is doing to • What should the body be doing • and signals the brain to make changes as necessary. • Damage to the cerebellum typically results in • Loss of ability for both sensory and motor coordination • Results in disruptions of equilibrium, motor coordination and postural control. • E.g., cerebral palsy

35. Specialized areas within cerebellum • Vestibulocerebellum: • This area regulates both balance and eye movements. • damage to the vestibulocerebellum results in disruptions of balance and gait. • Spinocerebellum • Anticipates and adjusts for body and limb movements. • Elaborates proprioceptive input, allowing the system to anticipate future body position.

36. Specialized areas within cerebellum • Cerebrocerebellum: • Critical for planning movement and evaluating sensory information required for action. • Planning anticipated motor movements and modulating at least some cognitive functions. • Cerebellar deep nuclei: • Unique (and only) set of output structures • Sends information regarding other specialized areas….thus exerts control on basal ganglia, cortex, etc.

37. So: What part of the brain controls movement? • MANY brain areas control movement: • Prefrontal cortex: selects the motor response • Premotor cortex : • Combines information from prefrontal and parietal cortex. • Selects individual responses for movement • Supplementary motor area : Assembles sequences of movements • Primary motor cortex: Executes voluntary movements: • Basal Ganglia: • Direct and indirect pathways • Maintain voluntary movement while suppressing unwanted movement • Cerebellum: • Integrates movements; helps precise timing • Smoothes, refines, makes sure what is = what should be. • Note the redundancy and dual control of processing! • Why!?!