Mr. .Cook’s AP European History

1. Mr. .Cook’s AP European History The Age of Nation-States, and Conflict: Crimea, Italian Unification, Dual Monarchy, Russian Reform to Revolution, Bismarck, and Victorian England

2. The Crimean War • Originally between Russia & Ottomans • Ottomans gave Catholic France control of the Holy Lands instead of Orthodox Russia • Russia vowed to protect Christians in the Holy Lands - moved to invade - Ottomans declare war • Russia invaded Moldavia and Walachia (Romania) – Austria was forced out

4. The Crimean War • Britain & France feared Russian aggression - declared war • Both sides had naval interests in the Black Sea • Both sides blundered - large casualties

5. The Crimean War • First photographed war • First MODERN war where guns are the major weapon!!! • Prussia neutral - but gains from Austrian/Russian conflict • Russia looses control of Black Sea in defeat • Concert of Europe unable to keep the peace - next generation not committed to balance of power- each nation seeks own goals

6. Italian Unification • Sought unification since Congress of Vienna • Romantic Republicans lead insurrections - • Giuseppe Mazzini • Giuseppe Garibaldi • Wanted path of self-determination away from Austria

7. Plans for Italian Unification • Plan 1 - unite behind Pope (1848/9) - Austria and France defeated the Roman Republic • Plan 2 - unite behind only independent state, Piedmont (Sardinia) - made independent by Congress of Europe as a buffer between France and Austria • Piedmont Prime Minister aids France in Crimean War with 10,000 troops - thrusts Piedmont onto world stage

8. Camillo Cavour • Cavour & Napoleon III scheme to provoke war to drive Austria out of Italy • France gets provinces of Nice & Savoy for help • Piedmont/France drives Austria out of power is the plan - Napoleon III fears Piedmont - signs own treaty with Austria

9. The New Italian State • Garibaldi unites southern Italy - Sicily and Naples • Northern Italy united with Piedmont • Garibaldi accepts total unification • Venetia and Rome added by 1870

10. Italy • Gained Venetia in deal with Prussians in war with Austria • Gained area around Rome after French lose Franco-Prussian War - city of Rome remains hostile • Form of government: monarchy - Victor Emmanuel from Piedmont • Franchise limited - corruption abounds

11. The Habsburg Empire • Excepting Russia, the least liberal of European governments • Franz Joseph comes to power in 1848 - rules in absolutist style • Problem of holding ethnically diverse population together - Magyars, Slavs, Italians • Loss of Italy suggested inefficient chain of command - Franz Joseph reorganizes twice - both rejected by Magyars

12. The Compromise of 1867 • This occurs after the being forced out of the German Confederation by Bismarck. • Franz Joseph creates two nations ruled by him - The Dual Monarchy –Austria (German) & Hungary (Magyar) • Separate Parliaments created • Czechs want same deal - trialism - Franz Joseph agrees but Magyars oppose - did not want to give autonomy to its subject groups of Romanians and Croatians - continued unrest

13. The Dual Monarchy • Czech leaders appeased with jobs • Franz Joseph gives right of language in ethnic areas, introduces universal male suffrage in Austria

14. Russian Reform • Nicholas I dies during Crimean War - Alexander II institutes reforms including abolition of serfdom (U.S. and Brazil remain) • Former serfs given rights but no land - forced to buy from landowners over 49 year period - interest paid to the government

15. Russian Reform • Many fail to pay - debt not forgiven until 1906 • Without landlords to control serf, new system of government needed - Village communes “Zemstovs” organized to adjudicate local matters • Military reformed to fill ranks after abolition of serfdom - terms of service shortened - rules relaxed

16. Russian Repression • Alexander II squelches revolt by the Polish nobility, emancipates their serfs, forces Russian language on Poles • Alexander becomes more repressive after assassination attempt in 1866 - creates police state • Radical opposition begins to mount - exiled Alexander Herzen leads effort

17. Revolutionaries in Russia • Social revolution preached in radical societies like Land and Freedom • Young revolutionaries go to peasants to educate them - peasants turn revolutionaries over to the police • Courts give light sentences in hope of support

18. Assassination of Alexander II • Attacks against government continue until Alexander II is killed • Son Alexander III rules with an iron fist

19. Otto von Bismarck The Iron Chancellor

20. Bismarck achieved prominence in Prussia as the archconservative opponent of the liberal Revolution of 1848. • He was the first leader to introduce universal male suffrage in Europe. • He also introduced the most comprehensive system of social welfare the world would see for sixty years.

21. When Bismarck was a young man the Metternich system ruled Europe. It had three key principles: 1) A European balance of power of the leading nations. 2) An internal German equilibrium between Austria and Prussia. 3) A system of alliances based on conservative values. • Bismarck would challenge all three.

22. Bismarck and Realpolitik • Realpolitik- “pragmatic” politics- foreign policy based on calculations of power and the national interest. • Bismarck believed that Prussia had become the strongest of the German states and did not need the Holy Alliance as a link to Russia. • He considered Austria as an obstacle to Prussia’s domination of Germany. • He did not feel Prussia needed Austria at all; that she could impose her will unilaterally.

23. In Bismarck, the Habsburgs faced the same challenge they had faced with Richelieu- a policy divorced from any value system except the glory of the state. • Bismarck would have understood implicitly Richelieu’s raison d’etat. • For Bismarck, Prussia had NO foreign-policy interests other than enhancing its own position within Germany.

24. For Bismarck, there was no nation with whom he would not develop an alliance if it benefited Prussia, so he allied himself with the hated France, to the consternation of his conservative allies. • Here Bismarck is following in the steps of Richelieu who chose nation over his religion when to do so benefited the nation. • Bismarck was willing to “make friends” with a socialist like Napoleon III if it, in the long run, benefited Prussia.

25. He makes an alliance with France for one reason: Austria is afraid of France’s intentions. • If Austria was afraid of France, and saw Prussia as a French ally, then she would make concessions to Prussia. • For Bismarck the only value that was meaningful was power; nothing else. • For him, realpolitik, depended on flexibility and on the ability to exploit every option without the constraint of ideology.

26. Bismarck and Germany • Bismarck believed for Prussia to lead in the founding of a German state, Austria must be eliminated as a potential rival. • He rested Prussia’s claim to leadership in Germany on its strength, not on shared values. • To him, the strength of Prussia’s governmental, military, and financial institutions opened the road to Prussian primacy in Germany.

27. By 1867, through skillful maneuverings with the nations of Europe and his own political skills in the German states, he expelled Austria from Germany, and Prussia became the dominant force in the German states, and in all of Central Europe. • That Germany he was helping to create was not that of those who desired through self-determination to create a homeland, but a Germany based on Prussian military power.

28. Though he achieved what he set out to do, the very magnitude of his triumph mortgaged his nation’s future, because it was a nation forged on the anvils of militarism, and the threat of the use of war. • Interesting enough, after he had achieved the borders he considered vital to German security, he did not lead Germany into any other wars, but conducted a stabilizing foreign policy. • The problem was that his successors were no way as intelligent as him, and rather than using shrewd diplomatic skills they used the armed might he had created.

29. The Franco-Prussian War1870-1871

30. Background • Four southern states remained independent and not part of the North German Confederation Bismarck had created. • Bismarck knew that he could not simply annex these states. • He also knew, however, that a potential threat from France would stir up German nationalism in the southern states and that these states, deprived of Austria, would then look to Prussia as a ‘big brother’.

31. Secret Alliances • Bismarck engineered secret alliances between Prussia and the four southern states. • These alliances stated that in the event of war the south German states would fight with Prussia and also place their armies under direct Prussian control.

32. The Spanish Candidacy • In 1868, Queen Isabella of Spain was deposed and the Spanish parliament sought to appoint a new monarch. • Wilhelm I’s nephew – Leopold Hohenzollern was proposed as a potential candidate by Bismarck. • Bismarck knew that France would not accept this proposal as it would threaten French security, so he hoped to have the proposal approved before the French found out. • The French did find out, however, and were outraged.

33. Bismarck was always on the lookout for an opportunity to expand Prussian power and influence. Initially that is what he was attempting to do with the Spanish Candidacy. • As the crisis developed, however, it is clear that Bismarck’s aims changed and he planned to exploit the mistakes of the French and anti-French feeling to stir up German nationalism. • This would possibly bring the four remaining states into Germany.

34. Why did the French fight alone? • Once again, Bismarck made sure that his enemy was isolated. • The British were hostile to the French because Bismarck had leaked details of Napoleon’s interest in Belgium. • They were also hostile to the French because of the presence of a French army in Rome, which was preventing Italian unification.

35. Why did the Prussians win the war? • The German armies mobilised in 18 days and the Germans invaded France, so the French were always fighting a defensive war. • Once again the Prussian military proved to be decisive. The French suffered heavy defeats at Metz and Sedan. Napoleon’s government was overthrown and a republic was declared. • Paris was besieged for several months until the French surrendered in January 1871.

36. The Treaty of Frankfurt • France was forced to pay an indemnity of £200 million within 4 years. • Territory was annexed, most notably Alsace and Lorraine. • The German army triumphantly marched through Paris.

37. Bismarck and the German Empire (1871-1890) • Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, became Wilhelm, Kaiser of the German Empire. • The German states were each independent, but recognized Prussia as the dominant state • Bismarck’s first serious conflict was with the Catholic Church: 1) “Syllabus of Errors” (1864)- Denounced the encroachment of the government in educational and church affairs

38. 2) 1870- The new dogma of papal infallibility was declared. a) This meant that all Catholics MUST accept, without reservations, the Pope’s pronouncements in matters of faith morals. b) The implication was that the new empire could not count on the undivided loyalty of its Catholic citizens. 3) To defend Catholic beliefs and to protect those of the South German states where Catholicism dominated, the Church formed its own political party, the Center Party.

39. 1871- Bismarck launched the kulturkampf,.or “battle for modern civilization.” a) Restrictions upon Catholic worship and education. b) The Jesuits were expelled. c) Many bishops were arrested or exiled. • Bismarck, practicing his realpolitik, realizing he needed the Catholic Church’s support to pass some of his program, backed off from his criticism and persecution of the Church.

40. Britain: Toward Democracy • Continues to refine liberal form of government - symbol of the confident liberal state • Address issues of expanding suffrage, secret ballot, education, and care for the poor • This period named Victorian England after the monarch, Queen Victoria, that ruled from 1837 to 1901.

41. The Reform Bill of 1832 • Transformed English class structure • Extended the right to vote to all males owning property • Second Reform Bill passed in 1867 that increased the electorate by 1,000,000 voters • Extended right to vote to working class

42. British Prime Ministers • Benjamin Disraeli - conservative - hoped expanded middle class would favor conservatism • William Gladstone - liberal - backs government’s assumption of responsibility for education

43. Disraeli and Gladstone • Both seek reform • Take turns as Prime Minister • Gladstone gives support to Irish home rule, splitting Liberal Party • Irish hold balance of power in Parliament - Home rule passes on the third attempt