Understanding Individual Differences

1. Understanding Individual Differences • The Concept of Personality • Sources of Personality Differences • Personality Structure* • Personality and Behavior* • The Concept of Attitude* • Attitudes and Behavior • Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment* • Individual Differences and Ethical Behavior* • Case: Robert Princeton

2. Concept of Personality • Definition: Personal characteristics that lead to consistent patterns of behavior • Important Note*:Personality alone accounts for only 2-12% of the variance in behavior (NOT IN TEXT) • Interactionist Perspective*: (p. 48) Note that both the person and the situation act as significant causes of behavior in organizations, thus reinforcing the importance of properly managing the situations that employees work in.

3. Sources of Personality Differences • Heredity: Research on the nature-nurture controversy* indicates that about 50% of the variance in personality is inherited, thus setting limits on development • Environment: Shapes at least 50% of personality? • Culture • Family • Group Membership • Life Experiences

4. Personality Structure:The “Big Five” Personality Factors*(Each factor is a continuum of many related traits) Adjustment (Stable, confident, effective) (Nervous, self-doubting, moody) Sociability (Gregarious , energetic, self-dramatizing) (Shy, unassertive, withdrawn) Conscientiousness (Planful, neat, dependable) (Impulsive, careless, irresponsible) Agreeableness (Warm, tactful, considerate) (Independent, cold, rude) Intellectual Openness (Imaginative, curious, original) (Dull, unimaginative, literal-minded)

5. Personality and Behavior:Specific Personality Traits* and Their Linkage to the “Big Five” • Self-esteem (“self-worth”) is part of adjustment • Locus of control (“fate vs. personal control”) is part of conscientiousness • Introversion and extraversion (preference for thinking vs. interacting--NOT “social skills”) are part of sociability • Dogmatism (generalized rigidity of beliefs) and authoritarianism (narrower personality type who prefers to follow orders) are part of intellectual openness • REMEMBER: Traits are continua—people may be high, low, or in-between. Most people are in-between!

6. Goal Orientation as a Personality Trait • Definition: The preference for one type of goal versus another. Two orientations are important in understanding individual job performance: • Learning goal orientation – a predisposition to develop competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations; may be associated with better individual job performance • Performance goal orientation – a predisposition to demonstrate and validate competence by seeking favorable judgments from others (e.g., a supervisor) and avoiding negative judgments; may be associated with a “helpless” response pattern and weak performance

7. The Concept of Attitude* • Definition: Relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and behavior tendencies directed toward specific people, groups, ideas, issues, or objects. • Attitudes consist of three components*: • AFFECTIVE = feelings • COGNITIVE = beliefs • BEHAVIORAL = predispositions to act

8. Attitudes and Behavior • Attitudes do not normally predict or cause behavior in a simple and direct way • Three principles relate attitudes to behavior: • General attitudes best predict general behaviors • Specific attitudes best predict specific behaviors • The less time that elapses between attitude measurement and behavior, the more consistent will be the relationship between them

9. Effects of Work Factors on Job Satisfaction*(Def: The general attitude toward a job--NOT directly related to performance, but IS related to turnover, absenteeism, and health) Job satisfaction is enhanced when: • Work is challenging and interesting but not tiring. • Rewards are equitable and provide feedback. • Working conditions match physical needs and promote goal attainment. • Self-esteem is high. • Others in the organization hold similar views and facilitate reward attainment. • Policies and procedures are clear, don’t conflict, and aid goal attainment.

10. Organizational Commitment* • Refers to the strength of an employee’s involvement in and identification with the organization • Strong organizational commitment entails: • Strong belief in/acceptance of an organization’s goals and values • Willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization • Strong desire to maintain membership in the organization • Higher commitment is negatively related to absenteeism and turnover, and positively related to productivity

11. Changes in Organizational Commitment Over Time • Initial Commitment is determined by individual characteristics and degree of congruence between their expectations and organizational realities • Subsequent Commitment is influenced by job experiences, including many of the same factors which influence job satisfaction (such as pay, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, advancement opportunities, etc.)

12. Ethical Attitudes and Behavior • Characterized by significant individual differences • People are more likely to behave ethically if*: • They have reached a higher level of cognitive moral development • They possess a high internal locus of control • Organizational culture supports and reinforces specific ethical attitudes and behavior

13. Types of Management Ethics* • Immoral management • Devoid of any ethical principles, characterized by exploitation for corporate or personal gain • Moral management • Guided by appropriate ethical principles • Amoral management • Indifference toward ethical principles, characterized by a lack of awareness of ethical issues

14. Steps for Instilling Moral Management* • Identify ethical attitudes crucial for the organization’s operations, and use training programs to foster them • Select employees with desired attitudes • Incorporate ethics in the performance evaluation process • Establish a work culture that reinforces ethical attitudes