Individual Differences

1. Individual Differences Getting to Know Yourself

2. Ability An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. • Made up of two sets of factors: • Intellectual Abilities • The abilities needed to perform mental activities. • General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence. • Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for recruitment screening. • No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction. • Physical Abilities • The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

3. Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

4. Nine Basic Physical Abilities • Strength Factors • Dynamic strength • Trunk strength • Static strength • Explosive strength • Flexibility Factors • Extent flexibility • Dynamic flexibility • Other Factors • Body coordination • Balance • Stamina

5. Biographical Characteristics Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics. • Age • Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality. • Gender • Few differences between men and women that affect job performance. • Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself) • Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-based than race-based.

6. Other Biographical Characteristics • Tenure • People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied. • Religion • Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-9/11 world. • Sexual Orientation • Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may). • Domestic partner benefits are important considerations. • Gender Identity • Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

7. Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience • Learning components:

8. Theories of Learning • Classical Conditioning • A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. • Operant Conditioning • A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. • Social-Learning Theory • People can learn through observation and direct experience.

9. A Chronological Overview of Learning Theory • Plato – (Idealism) • Mind/spirit is base to everything that exists • Human knowledge is derived from the ideas and concepts that are present in the mind at birth in the form of shadowy images. • Learning is the process of developing these inborn ideas into a knowledge system • Mind is developed through the study of pure forms of mathematics (circle & square) and the classics. • Aristotle (Realism) • Reality exists in the physical world, not in the mind’s conception of it. • Universal laws are not innate ideas – they are relationships observed in nature. • Learning occurs by contact with the environment • Individuals acquire knowledge by forming images of sensory experiences and making associations among the images.

10. Chronological Development • Apprenticeship Training • Apprentice • Yeoman – (“Yeomanaries”) • Master – Craft Guild • 1800’s • DeWitt Clinton • “the manual school” • Hoe & Company (1872) printing training • General Electric (1888) • 1900’s • Frederick Taylor (scientific management) – “Schmidt” • Henry Ford (mass production) • Human Relations • Mary Parker Follett • the Gilbreths – “therbligs”

11. Specific Functions of Learning Theory Function Example Serves as guide for planning instruction Gagne’s conditions of learning provides a set of 9 steps that parallel the sequence in which information is received, processed, and stored in long term memory Theories helpful in evaluation of CBT include information processing principles of Skinner’s operant conditioning, Gagne’s Conditions of Learning, Bandura’s Social cognitive theory Evaluates current products for classroom use and current practice Diagnoses problems in instruction Difficulties experienced by low achievers often include low self esteem in inadequate learning strategies

12. B.F. Skinner • Primary exponent of Behaviorist approach • Applied Concepts of Operant Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • Learningis equated to a change in overt behavior • Changes in behavior are the result of an individual responding to events in the environment (stimuli). • A response involves some action on the part of the learner. • When a desired stimulus-response pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond in a particular manner. • Hence, learning has occurred. • Implications for Instruction • Forget sophisticated learning systems – just train the students with reward systems until they do what you want!

13. Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s Dog - Drool • Key Concepts: • Unconditioned stimulus • A naturally occurring phenomenon. • Unconditioned response • The naturally occurring response to a natural stimulus. • Conditioned stimulus • An artificial stimulus introduced into the situation. • Conditioned response • The response to the artificial stimulus. This is a passive form of learning. It is reflexive and not voluntary – not the best theory for OB learning.

14. Operant Conditioning • B. F. Skinner’s concept of Behaviorism: behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner. • Key Concepts: • Conditioned behavior: voluntary behavior that is learned, not reflexive. • Reinforcement: the consequences of behavior which can increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior repetition. • Pleasing consequences increase likelihood of repetition. • Rewards are most effective immediately after performance. • Unrewarded/punished behavior is unlikely to be repeated.

15. Abraham Maslow • Founder ofHumanistic Psychology • Human beings all experience a hierarchy of needs, from basic physical needs to higher needs of emotion and ego. Self-actualization is the highest need and the driving force of human personality. • The Hierarchy of Needs • Physiological (hunger, thurst, shelter, etc.) • Safety (security, protection from physical harm, etc.) • Social (affection, belonging, acceptance, friendship, etc.) • Esteem (ego) - internal (self respect, autonomy, achievement) • - external (status, recognition, attention) • 5. Self Actualization (doing that which maximizes one’s potential and fulfills one’s innate aspirations) • Implications for Instruction • By applying the hierarchy in class, a teacher knows that a student who is not well fed or cared for, either physically or emotionally will not learn well.

16. Carl Rogers Had a great deal of influence on Malcolm Knowles Advocate of experiential learning - “children should be taught how to think rather than what to think” Identified 2 types of learning: Cognitive – corresponds to rote knowledge such as the learning the multiplication tables. He considered this type of learning to be meaningless in the long run or in itself. Experiential – refers to the applied knowledge such as learning to use a computer in order to publish a paper. He considered this to be of the utmost importance. The principal distinction is that experiential learning stems from the needs and wants of the learner. Implications for Learning The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning and to make available learning resources. The student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction.

17. Malcolm Knowles Known as “Father of Adult Education” Androgogy versus Pedagogy Believed that adults, as learners, should: • Acquire a mature understanding of themselves • Develop an attitude of acceptance, love, and respect toward others. • Develop a dynamic attitude toward life • Learn to react to the causes, not the symptoms, of behavior • Acquire the skills necessary to achieve the potentials of their personalities • Understand the essential values in the capital of human experience • Understand their society and should be skillful in directing social change Implications for Learning Adult learners react differently to being taught how to do something. They need to be able to apply the skills learned in practical settings.

18. Pedagogy Andragogy The learner The learner's experience Readiness to learn Orientation to learning Androgogy versus Pedegogy: Implications for Learning Dependent. Teacher directs what, when, how a subject is learned and tests that it has been learned Moves towards independence. Self-directing. Teacher encourages and nurtures this movement Of little worth. Hence teaching methods are didactic A rich resource for learning. Hence teaching methods include discussion, problem-solving etc. People learn what they need to know, so that learning programs organized around life application. People learn what society expects them to. So that the curriculum is standardized. Acquisition of subject matter. Curriculum organized by subjects. Learning should be based around experiences, since people are performance centered in their learning

19. John Dewey Known as “Father of Progressive Education” Established experimental Laboratory School at University of Chicago Students learn by “directed learning,” with an emphasis on workshop- type projects so that learning is combined with concrete activity and practical relevance. He rejected the practice of rote learning which was the common mode of instruction in his day. Implication for Instruction Students must be engaged in meaningful and relevant activities which allow them to apply the concepts they are endeavoring to learn. Hands-on projects are the key to creating authentic experiences.

20. Robert Gagne • Co- developer of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) • Instruction can be analyzed and broken down into component parts which can then be taught sequentially Gagne’s Intellectual Learning Skills Learner responds differently to characteristics that distinguish objects, such as shape, size, color Learner identifies object or event as a member of a concept class; learned through direct encounter with concrete example – “triangles” Cannot be learned through concrete examples; acquired by learning a classifying rule – “liberty” Learner can respond to a class of simulations with a class of performances that represents a relationship – adding integer sets 5+2, 6+1, 9+4 Learner combines subordinate rules in order to solve a problem - most effective learning strategy is guided discovery Discrimination learning Concept Learning Concrete concepts Defined concepts Rule Learning Higher-order rule learning (problem solving)

21. Robert Gagne (continued) • Learning involves at least 9 instructional events: • Gaining attention (reception) • Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) • Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) • Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) • Providing the learning guidance (semantic encoding) • Eliciting performance (responding) • Providing feedback (reinforcement) • Assessing performance (retrieval) • Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) There are 5 major kinds of learning, each requiring different types of instruction: Verbal information – e.g., learning a new word Intellectual skill – e.g., learning to multiply Cognitive strategy – e.g., logical reasoning, understanding how the phases of the moon occur Attitudes – e.g., how one felt after reading a book Motor skills – e.g., tying a shoelace

22. Preparation For Learning Core Instructional Events Transfer Of Learning

23. Benjamin Bloom Developer of Taxonomy of Objectives Believes most students can master a curriculum. The key is change in teaching methods. Mastery learning includes subject instruction, a “pre-test” to determine need for re-teaching, re-teaching of missed concepts using traditional instruction, peer collaboration and a final test. Taxonomy of Objectives – Cognitive Domain 1. Knowledge - Remembering and recall of information 2. Comprehension - Organization and selection of relevant facts and ideas 3. Application - Use of facts, principles in a different manner 4. Analysis - Outlining, comparing, classifying ideas 5. Synthesis - Creating something new from existing ideas 6. Evaluation - Judging an idea regarding validity, value, etc. Implications for Instruction All learners are expected to master curriculum (rare exceptions). Re-teaching and collaborative work is used extensively to bring all students to expected proficiency

24. Taxonomy of Objectives – Psychomotor Domain (Simpson) 1. PerceptionUse of sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor activity 2. SetReadiness to take a particular action (mental & physical) 3. Guided Response Imitation and trial & error in the learning of a complex skill 4. Mechanism Learned responses have become habitual with proficiency 5. Complex Overt Skillful performance of motor acts with proficiency Response 6. AdaptationSkills well developed and modifications can be made 7. Origination Creating new patterns to fit particular situation Taxonomy of Objectives – Affective Domain (Krathwahl) 1. ReceivingWillingness to attend to a stimuli (pay attention) 2. Responding Active participation in addition to paying attention 3. Valuing Placing a value or worth to a object, phenomenon, behavior 4. Organization Bringing together different values; resolving conflicts 5. Characterization Develops a predictable, consistent behavior a “life-style”

25. Domain Entry Screen

28. Social-Learning Theory • Based on the idea that people can also learn indirectly: by observation, reading, or just hearing about someone else’s – a model’s – experiences. • Key Concepts: • Attentional processes • Must recognize and pay attention to critical features to learn. • Retention processes • Model’s actions must be remembered to be learned. • Motor reproduction processes • Watching the model’s behavior must be converted to doing. • Reinforcement processes • Positive incentives motivate learners.

29. I. Define Requirements II. Define Solutions Establish Performance Standards & Requirements Design Human Performance Solutions Develop, Build, & Integrate Tools Implement & Test Intervention; Evaluate “Product of Plan” III. Develop Components IV. Execute & Measure A Human Performance System Model

30. A Framework for Learning:The Navy Learning Model On-the-Job Learning Referenced Based Learning Computer – Mediated Learning Sailor Instructor-Led Learning Collaborative Learning Mentoring

31. A 4 tiered blended model of learning provides a template from which to select delivery systems

32. Spectrum of Delivery Systems • Tier 1 - Learn from Information • Performance Support (EPSS) • Web Lectures • Web Books • Tier 2 - Learn from Interaction • CBT/Multimedia • Tier 3 - Learn from Collaboration • Collaborative Learning • Tier 4 - Learn from Collocation • Classroom • Mentoring

33. ? ? ? So How Do You Choose?

34. The "Tradeoffs" Selecting Delivery Systems