Collecting Gender Data on Access to and Ownership of Economic Assets

1. Collecting Gender Data on Access to and Ownership of Economic Assets Lucia Fort The World Bank August 9, 2007

2. Presentation Outline • Key Conceptual and Methodological Issues: • Asset Ownership and Control • Gender Dimensions of Asset Ownership • Gender Asset Data: status and suggestions • Gender asset gaps: data issues and evidence • Asset Data collected at the Household and Individual Levels • Suggestions for improving data collection for gender analysis • Additional data sources • Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice: • Improving LSMS and other major survey questionnaires • Draft module – Individual Asset Questionnaire • Incorporating individual level asset questions into existing surveys: the 2000 Guatemala LSMS questionnaire

3. Asset Ownership and Control • Assets are defined as, “stocks of financial, human, natural or social resources that can be acquired, developed, improved and transferred across generations,” • They include: • financial assets, land, livestock, housing, • non-farm business assets • other physical assets such as vehicles and • culturally specific valued items. Key Conceptual and Methodological Issues

4. Asset Ownership and Control • Assets serve two main functions: • as social safety net -- strengthen households’ ability to cope with aggregate shocks (financial crises, natural disasters) and idiosyncratic shocks (divorce, illness, or death). • as an income generating mechanism—providing productive capacity, ensuring access to credit, capital, etc. • Asset inequality, combined with market failures, leads to differential productivity between those who own assets and those who do not, which creates poverty and inequality traps. • There is a correlation between ownership and control of assets and vulnerability  More ownership and control of assets  less vulnerability  Less ownership and control of assets  more vulnerability Key Conceptual and Methodological Issues

5. Gender Dimensions of Asset Ownership • Women are less likely than men to own and control assets, especially productive assets; • Men and women often own different types of assets; • Channels for acquiring assets can also reflect differences by gender. Even within the household, women may not benefit by assets owned and controlled by men; • Social norms, intra-family arrangements and civil codes can limit the ownership and control of assets by women (i.e. inheritance laws); and • Lack of ownership and control of assets results in greater poverty and economic vulnerability for women, especially in the event of a divorce or the death of the husband. Key Conceptual and Methodological Issues

6. Gender Dimensions of Asset Ownership Men and women acquire land through different channels… Key Conceptual and Methodological Issues

7. Gender Asset Gaps: Data issues • To understand gender patterns of asset ownership, it is important to know both the proportion of men and women who own a particular asset, as well as the value of the assets. • Most data on assets are collected only at the household level – leading to an incomplete or partial understanding of individual-level ownership patterns. • Few studies • examine the gender dimensions of asset ownership at the micro or macro levels. One reason is the lack of empirical information on the distribution of wealth and property by sex; • collect information on the full set of financial and physical assets; • examine whether assets are owned individually or jointly, how assets were acquired, what is their current value, and the rights that individuals have over each type of asset. Gender Asset Data

8. Gender Asset Gaps: evidence • Land Ownership: Women are less likely to own land, and their plots are likely to be smaller and of poorer quality than men’s. • In Cameroon, over 75% of the agricultural work is done by women, but women hold less than 10% of land certificates. • Housing: Rarely do surveys asks which household member(s) owns the dwelling and/or who has title to the house • In Nicaragua, women owned 44% of owned residences, men owned 50%, and 6% were held jointly by both spouses (2001 ENHMNV). • Livestock Ownership: A general pattern is for men to own large livestock (particularly work animals) while women own smaller livestock and yard animals. • In Nicaragua, men owned 23% of livestock and women owned 37%. However, women were more likely to own pigs and poultry, while men were more likely to own donkeys, horses and cattle. Gender Asset Data

9. Gender Asset Gaps: evidence • Business Assets: Not much research has focused on gender gaps. • Research in Ghana found that although women were more likely to own business assets, the mean value of the assets owned by men was much higher than that owned by women. • In Nicaragua, women owned 49% of household businesses and men only 37%. • Financial Assets: Research on pensions reveals that • men are more likely to hold jobs that provide access to pensions, and • among those with pensions, average pensions are larger for men than for women. • There has been little research on other financial assets owned by men and women. • Other Physical Assets: Women and men own other physical assets such as vehicles, jewelry and culturally specific items. These types of assets may differ by gender.  A UNICEF/IFPRI, UDS survey in Savelugu and Nanton Districts in Ghana showed that men were more likely than women to own bicycles, cars or motorcycles. Gender Asset Data

10. Household and Individual Level Data on Assets • Surveys such as the Living Standards Measurement Survey, LSMS, capture more data at the household level than at the individual level, but Household level data do not allow an understanding of individual welfare or household dynamics. • Individual level data on assets provide a more dynamic perspective about: • who owns and controls the asset; • whether all benefits derived from the asset are shared (equally) among household members; and • what happens to an asset over time (i.e., inheritance practices). • A review of 73 LSMS and quasi-LSMS household questionnaires reveals that • most LSMS collected data on ownership of land, livestock and housing • and data on other physical assets such as consumer durables and vehicles, • but fewer collect data on business and financial assets. Gender Asset Data

11. Individual Level Data on Assets • In comparison to household level data, fewer LSMS questionnaires collect individual level data on assets. • Only 22%, 7% and 21% of the LSMS questionnaires collected individual level data on land, livestock and housing, respectively, while 82%, 81% and 96% LSMS questionnaires did so at the household level. • Over 40% collected data on financial assets, specifically on pension income and rent, interest and dividends, but • Fewer LSMS questionnaires collected data on business and other physical assets at the individual level. Gender Asset Data

12. Suggestions for Improving Data Collection for Gender Analysis • Land: Collect individual level data on land access, ownership, titling and management at the plot level and by sex. • Livestock: Collect individual level data on livestock ownership and management . • Housing: Collect household and individual level data on ownership, titling, and rights over the dwelling by sex. Gender Asset Data

13. Improving Data Collection for Gender Analysis • Business Assets: Collect individual level data on business asset ownership and management. • Savings and Other Financial Assets: Collect individual level data on ownership of bank accounts, stocks and bonds, and rents, interest and dividends by sex. • Other Physical Assets: Collect individual level data on ownership of consumer durables and culturally specific items (i.e. real estate, vehicles, jewelry). Gender Asset Data

14. Individual Asset Questionnaire • Proposed self-standing questionnaire to collect household and individual level data on: • housing (28 questions); • land (28 questions); • livestock (8 questions); • non-farm business assets (8 questions); • other physical assets (8 questions); • financial assets (4 questions); • debt and credit (8 questions); • extraordinary losses (10 questions); • conflict over assets (6 questions); • marital and inheritance regimes (21 questions); and • knowledge and attitudes about property rights (9 questions). Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

15. Individual Asset Questionnaire Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

16. Individual Asset Questionnaire Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

17. Improving LSMS Questionnaires with Gender Assets Questions • Integrating questions on gender assets differences into existing LSMS questionnaires will: • Enable policymakers to document asset ownership and management at the individual level; • Facilitate an understanding of how men and women accumulate and dispose of assets; • Facilitate an understanding of asset ownership and management patterns by gender; • Raise awareness of gender asset gaps; • Help monitor achievement of MDG3 and other gender parity indicators; and • Provide empirical data necessary in the development of social programs and poverty reduction efforts. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

18. Improving LSMS Questionnaires with Gender Assets Questions: process • Assess gender differences and issues in assets ownership and control to formulate policy and data collection objectives • Secure partners in NSO, data collectors, line ministry, donor, etc. • Review available evidence, research, data and experience in assets measurement and assess capacity for data collection • Identify opportunities (surveys, other instruments) and choose a strategy for collecting gender-relevant data • Revise questions – which, how? • Add gender module – how, when? • Use self-standing gender questionnaire – resource implications • Decide how findings will be presented and disseminated--and to whom--and plan a dissemination strategy Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

19. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Housing: • Existing questions • Tenancy status and value of the dwelling; • Documentation - title of dwelling jointly or individual held; • Construction of dwelling – whether the dwelling was already constructed, ordered built by the household or built by the household members themselves; and • Improvements to the dwelling. • Suggestions for improvement: • Reduce number of questions on tenancy status; • Include question on which household member(s) own the dwelling; • Include question on how the dwelling was acquired; • Include question on the potential sales value of the dwelling; and • Include questions on the specific rights implied by ownership of the dwelling. • Adding the questions above would generate basic information on ownership and means of acquisition, help answer important questions about how men and women acquire property, and provide information on women’s bargaining positions with regards to rights over the dwelling. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

20. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Land: • Existing questions • Households agricultural activities; • Ownership of plots, including questions on land quality; • Value of the plot and how much money would be received if the plot were sold or leased; • Lease of property to someone else by the owner and how much was paid in rent; • Land acquisition and property documents; and • Land that was worked by the respondent, but was not owned. • Suggestions for improvement: • Include questions on which household member(s) owns the plot, whose name(s) are on the property document and when the land was acquired (date and whether it was acquire before, during or after marriage); • Include questions on specific rights associated with the plots; • Include questions on decision-making regarding the use of the land; and • Include questions about tenure security. • Adding the questions above would be useful for understanding land acquisition patterns by gender and how different marital regimes affect land ownership. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

21. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Livestock: • Existing questions • Household level questions on ownership of animals; • Value of the asset – at what price would the animal be sold; and • Animal products that were sold. • Suggestions for improvement: • Include individual level data on ownership of animals and specific property rights over the animals; • Decision-making and control of proceeds from animals. Non-farm Business Assets: • Existing questions • Businesses owned by the household and which household members worked in the business (hours worked per day); • Management of the business and whether this person is the respondent; and • Capital and inventory of each business and whether goods were owned or leased, value of items if sold, and whether goods are also used for other purposes or shared with other household businesses. • Suggestions for improvement • Include question on who owns each business asset and how and when the asset was acquired. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

22. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Other Physical Assets: • Existing questions • Household level questions on ownership of other physical assets (these items include kitchen articles, vehicles, other household articles, etc) and agricultural equipment. • Suggestions for improvement: • Include question on who is the owner of the assets. Financial Assets: • Existing questions • Deposit of money or saved in any type of account and whether current balance is higher, lower or equal to the average balance for the past 3 months; and • Pension income. • Suggestions for improvement • Include questions about the current value of the account and how the money was acquired. • Include all pension questions included in the draft module. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

23. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Debt and Credit: • Existing questions • Loans received, paid off or being paid off by any member of the household; • Guarantees made for the loan and documents signed; and • Purchase of food or other items on credit. • Suggestions for improvement • Include questions on loans made by household members to other individuals. Extraordinary Losses: • Existing questions • Adverse situations, including natural disasters, business closing, death of a household member – to be answered by the head of household; and • Questions on how the household compensated for the losses – including the sale of assets as an option. • Suggestions for improvement: • Include additional questions if assets were sold (how much money was received and to whom the assets had belonged); and • Ask other individuals in the household, not just the head of household, question on adverse situations. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

24. Guatemala LSMS Questionnaire Conflict Over Assets: • Suggestions for improvement • Include questions from draft module. Marital and Inheritance Regimes: • Existing questions • Marital status • Suggestions for improvement • Include questions on marital and inheritance regimes from the draft module. Knowledge of Property Rights: • Existing questions • Social capital – collective action, exclusion, perception of welfare; etc. • Suggestions for improvement: • Include questions on knowledge of property rights in social capital section of the questionnaire and ask these questions to all adults in the household. Gender Asset Data Collection in Practice

25. Land:  Bangladesh (IFPRI)  Ethiopia (IFPRI)  Ghana (IFPRI)  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  South Africa (ICRW)  Sri Lanka (ICRW)  Sumatra (IFPRI)  Uganda (ICRW)  West Bengal (ICRW) Financial Assets:  Philippines (IFRPI) Livestock:  Bangladesh (IFPRI)  Egypt (IFRPI)  Ethiopia (IFPRI)  Ghana (IFPRI)  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  South Africa (ICRW)  Sri Lanka (ICRW)  West Bengal (ICRW) Business Assets:  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI) Additional Data Sources • Housing:  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  South Africa (ICRW)  Sri Lanka (ICRW)  West Bengal (ICRW) • Other Physical Assets:  Ghana (IFPRI)  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  West Bengal (ICRW) Gender Asset Data

26. Credit/Debt:  Egypt (IFPRI)  Ethiopia (IFPRI)  Ghana & Urban Accra (IFRPI)  Malawi (IFRPI) Other:  Bangladesh (IFPRI)  Ghana (IFPRI)  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  South Africa (ICRW)  Sumatra (IFRPI)  Uganda (ICRW)  West Bengal (ICRW) Additional Data Sources • Assets Brought to Marriage:  Guatemala (ICRW)  Indonesia (ICW)  Kerala (ICRW)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Philippines (IFRPI)  Sri Lanka (ICRW)  West Bengal (ICRW) • Inheritance:  Ghana (IFRPI)  Malawi (IFRPI)  Sumatra (IFPRI) Gender Asset Data

27. Collecting Data on Gender and Assets: Exercise • Choose a country and data collection instrument based on group knowledge about possible opportunities and gender asset gaps or issues – explain your choice • Determine data collection objectives based on the gender asset gap or issue to be studied – explain your choice • Choose 1 or 2 types of assets to study--financial assets, land, livestock, housing, non-farm business assets, other physical assets, financial assets--and 1 category of related topics—debt and credit, extraordinary losses, conflict over assets, marital and inheritance regimes, knowledge about legal regimes – justify your choice • Select a data collection strategy based on available opportunities, resources and constraints – justify your choice • Revising questions • Adding gender module • Applying self-standing questionnaire • Using information from the presentation, choose which questions to revise or include in a module, and how you would revise them – provide revised text or list of questions for module • Reflect and report on the problems and difficulties of the exercise, for example, need for more information; lack of capacity; lack of understanding or commitment from decision-makers; need for special measures to reach target population, etc. • Any other comments or questions?