Chapter 2 – Measurement and Calculations

1. Chapter 2 – Measurement and Calculations Taken from Modern Chemistry written by Davis, Metcalfe, Williams & Castka

2. Scientific Method Section 1 - Objectives • Describe the purpose of the scientific method. • Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations. • Describe the differences between: • Hypotheses • theories • and models

3. Section 2-1 The Scientific method is a logical approach to solving problems by observing and collecting data, creating a hypothesis, testing the same, and formulating theories that are supported by data. Example Not sleeping at night , something, before I go to bed is impacting my sleep List the foods I eat and activities I take part in Hypothesis that by eliminating something I will get a better nights sleep Test the same Come up with theory supported by data

4. Section 2-1 (continued) Observing and Collecting Data Observing is using our senses to obtain information (data). The data fall into to categories: • Qualitative – descriptive (the ore has a red-brown color) • Quantitative - numerical (the ore has a mass of 25.7 grams) A system is a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected for study during an experiment or observation

5. Section 2-1 (continued) Formulating Hypothesis A hypothesis is a testable statement. “if...then” • If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased. • If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as they pass through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow through at a higher rate.

6. Section 2-1 (continued) Testing Hypothesis Testing a hypothesis requires experimentation. • If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased. • (The scientist will use 10 separate cups of water and increase the temperature in each by 5° C and then measure how much sugar will go into solution.) • If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as they pass through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow through at a higher rate. • (The scientist will use 1 membrane and 5 different size molecules and then measure how the diffusion rate through the membrane.)

7. Section 2-1 (continued) Theorizing A model in science is often used as an explanation of how phenomenon occur and how data or events are related.   A theory is a broad generalization that explains a body of facts or phenomena.

8. Section 2-1 (continued) Experimental Design – POGIL Fundamentals of Experimental Design

9. Units of Measurement Section 2 - Homework Notes on section 2.2 only pages 33-38.

10. Units of Measurement Section 2 - Objectives • Distinguish between: • A quantity • A unit • And a measurement standard. • Identify SI units for: • Length • Mass • Time • Volume • Density • Distinguish between mass and weight • Perform density calculations • Transform a statement of equality to a conversion factor.

11. Section 2-2 Measurements represent quantities. A quantity is something that has a magnitude and a size or amount. My mass and height 75.75 Kg 182.88 Cm

12. Section 2-2 (continued) SI Measurements Le Systeme International d’Unites or SI Different  75 000 is what we in the U.S. would know as 75,000 Commas in other countries represent decimal points.

13. Section 2-2 (continued) SI Base Units - Mass Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. SI Standard is the kilogram (kg). ~2.2 pounds The gram (g) which is 1/1000th of a kilogram is more commonly used for smaller objects.

14. Section 2-2 (continued) SI Base Units – Mass(continued) Mass should not be confused with weight. Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on matter Mass is measured with a balance. Weight is measured with a spring scale..

15. Section 2-2 (continued) SI Base Units – Length SI standard is the meter (m). 1 meter = 39.3701 inches To express longer distances the kilometer (km) is used, = 1000 meters

16. Section 2-2 (continued) Derived SI units Combinations of SI base units form derived units. EXAMPLES m2 Others are given there own name… = length x width This is a pascal (Pa) and it is used to measure pressure. kg/m∙s2

17. Section 2-2 (continued) Derived SI Units (continued)– Volume Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. Too Large The derived SI unit for volume would be a m3 Instead scientist often us a non-SI unit called the liter (L) which is equal to one cubic decimeter. 1 L = 1.05669 quarts

18. Section 2-2 (continued) Derived SI Units (continued)– Density Density is the ratio of mass to volume, written as mass divided by volume.. kg/m3 D = m/v g/cm3 Earth based reference The density of H2O @ 4 ° C = 1 g/cm3 g/L

19. Section 2-2 (continued) Derived SI Units– Density (continued) We are going to practice by finding the Density of Pennies Pg. 39

20. Section 2-2 (continued) Derived SI Units– Density (continued) Organization of Data

21. Section 2-2 (continued) Conversion Factors A conversion factoris a ratio derived from the equality between two different units that can be used to convert from one unit to another. General equation Quantity sought = quantity given X conversion factor

22. Section 2-2 (continued) Conversion Factors - Deriving Conversion Factors We can deriver a conversion factor when we know the relationship between the factors we have and the units we what. Our class task Prove the Rent song true!

23. Section 2-2 (continued) Conversion Factors - Deriving Conversion Factors Practice Class Created Conversion Units HW / Classwork (depends) – Section review bottom of page 42 questions 2-5 all

24. Section 2-2 (continued) Conversion Factors – Metrics (step method) The next slide will teach you about: King henry died by drinking chocolate milk under no pressure

25. Decimal Moves to left Remember Kilo- (k) The decimal moves the way you are stepping 103 Hecto- (h) Deka- (da) 102 Base 10 ____________ Liters Meters Grams pico (p) Milli- (m) Micro (µ) nano-(n) Deci- (d) 10-12 10-1 10-6 10-9 10-3 Centi- (c) 10-2 Smaller Units Larger Units Decimal Moves to right

26. Decimal Moves to left Remember Kilo- (k) The decimal moves the way you are stepping 103 Hecto- (h) Deka- (da) 102 Base 10 ____________ Liters Meters Grams pico (p) nano-(n) Micro (µ) Deci- (d) Milli- (m) 10-12 10-1 10-3 10-9 10-6 Centi- (c) 10-2 Smaller Units Larger Units Step Practice HW Decimal Moves to right

27. Using Scientific Measurements HW Notes on this section with these objectives in mind Section 3 - Objectives • Distinguish between accuracy and precision. • Determine the number of significant figures in measurements. • Perform mathematical operations involving significant figures. • Convert measurements into scientific notation. • Distinguish between inversely and directly proportional relationships

28. Accuracy and Precision Section 2-3 • Accuracy refers to the closeness of measurements to the correct or accepted value. • Precision refers to the closeness of a set of measurements made in the same way.

29. Section 2-3 (continued) Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Percent Error ( Valueaccepted – Valueexperimental) Percent error = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100 ValueACCEPTED % error is positive (+) when the Valueacceptedis greater than Valueexperimental % error is negative (-) when the Valueacceptedis less than Valueexperimental

30. Section 2-3 (continued) Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Percent Error ( Valueaccepted – Valueexperimental) Percent error = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100 ValueACCEPTED EXAMPLE 1 (time estimation) EXAMPLE 2 (penny density)

31. Section 2-3 (continued) Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Error in Measurement • Some error or uncertainty always exists in any measurement. • Reasons • Skill of measurer • conditions (temperature, air pressure, humidity etc) • Instruments themselves

32. Section 2-3 (continued) Accuracy and Precision – Error in Measurement (continued)

33. Using Scientific Measurements Section 2.3 (second) - Objectives • Determine the number of significant figures in measurements. • Perform mathematical operations involving significant figures. HW Notes on this section with these objectives in mind Pgs 46-50

34. Section 2-2 (continued) Accuracy and Precision – POGIL Accuracy & Precision Up to Problem # 22

35. Section 2-3 Significant figures (‘Sig figs’)in a measurement consist of all the digits known with certainty plus one final digit, which is uncertain or is estimated.

36. Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Determining the number of significant digits • ALL non-zero numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are ALWAYS significant. • 2) ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers are ALWAYS significant. • 3) ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY to the right of the decimal point AND at the end of the number are ALWAYS significant. • 4) ALL zeroes which are to the left of a written decimal point and are in a number >= 10 are ALWAYS significant.

37. Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Determining the number of significant digits (continued)

38. Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Rounding (continued)

39. Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Sig Figs & Rounding (continued) PRACTICE # 1 (only front side) PRACTICE # 2 (only front side)

40. Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Addition or subtraction with Significant Figures When adding or subtracting decimals, the answer must have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as there are in the measurement having the FEWEST digits to the right of the decimal point. Example 25.1 g 2.03 g ______ 27.13 g as seen on a calculator, BUT using the above rule you would round the answer to  27.1 g

41. Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Multiplication & Division with Significant Figures For multiplication or division the answer can have no more significant figures than are in the measurement with the fewest number of significant digits. Example Density = mass ÷ volume 3.05 g _______ CALCULATOR ANSWER = 0.360094451 g/mL 8.47 mL But using the rule we go to 3 sig figs giving us  0.360 g/mL WARNING:do not let your friend the calculator screw up your answer!

42. Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Conversion Factors & Significant Digits When using conversion factors there is no uncertainty – the conversion are exact. Example 100 cm _______ x 4.608 m = 460.8 cm m

43. Practice Break Practice break (the other sides & more) HW in advance: Notes to the end of the chapter for Friday PRACTICE # 1 (only back side) PRACTICE # 2 (only back side) TONIGHT’S HW

44. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation Inscientific notation, numbers are written in the form M x 10n, where M is a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a whole number. Examples 149 000 000 km  1.49 x 108 km 1.49e8 0.000181 m  1.81 x 10-4 m 1.81e-4

45. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – addition & subtraction To add or subtract you must make the exponents the same OR EITHER Examples - adding 1.49 x 104 km 1.49 x 104 km 14.9 x 103 km 0.181 x 104 km 1.81 x 103 km 1.81 x 103 km 16.71 x 103 km 1.671 x 104 km 16.7 x 103 km Remember rounding 1.67 x 104 km

46. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – addition & subtraction UNITS TOO (don’t get tripped up on this) Examples 1.49 x 105 km Becomes 1.49 x 108 m 5.02 x 104 m Becomes 0.00502 x 108 m Becomes 1.49502 x 108 m Rounding Becomes 1.50 x 108 m

47. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – Multiplication M factors are multiplied and ns are added Remember general form M x 10n Examples 1.49 x 108 m 1.81 x 10-4 m 2.969 x 104 m 2.97 x 104 m Rounded

48. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – Division M factors are divided and ns are subtracted denominator from numerator Examples 5.44 x 107 g _____________ 8.1 x 104 mol = 0.6716049383 x 103 g/mol = 6.7 x 102 g/mol

49. Section 2-3 Scientific Notation - Practice PRACTICE PRACTICE KEY

50. Joke Break A man jumps into a NY City cab and asks the cab driver, “Do you know how to get to Carnegie Hall?” The cabbie turns around and says , “Practice, practice , practice!” PRACTICE Adding & Subtracting PRACTICE Multiplying & Dividing PRACTICE Sig Figs  Key to Sig Figs