AP Psych Exam Prep

1. AP Psych Exam Prep Student-generated study guide for the AP Psychology Examination

2. Key Concepts This chapter is about experimentation, specifically: Correlational research (are two things related?) Case Study approach (reading case files) Survey approach (giving surveys) Naturalistic observation (watching subject in nature) Longitudinal study (follows subjects over long periods of time) Cross-sectional study (follows many subjects with something in common) The goal of a psychological experiment is to define correlation and/or cause between two areas of psychological interest. The involves manipulating the independent variable and recording changes in the dependent variable as well as attempting to control other (confounding) variables. To accomplish this psychologists use such techniques as using representative samples (truly random), defining operational definition (what exactly they are measuring), making the experiment double-blind (neither the experimenter nor the subject knows whether they are a control or experiment group), and using placebos. Also, when order might matter psychologists use counterbalancing (meaning they do the experiment with one order and then others to see if there is a difference) Statistics: descriptive statistics simply describe a scenario. Inferential statistics use descriptive statistics to make an inference about a scenario. Mean = average Median = middle number (so in 12345 the median would be 3) Mode = most repeated number (so in 122345 mode = 2) Correlation coefficient (how accurate a study is. If the absolute value of the coefficient is close to one, it is very accurate. Positive means a positive correlation, and negative means a negative correlation. Statistical significance- usually when the correlation coefficient is greater than .95. Gambler’s fallacy—that the same number or combination can’t appear twice in a row (when in fact the laws of randomness dictate they will at some point in time) Nominal data- names (Tom, James) Ordinal data- ordered data (1,2,3,4) Interval data- difference over an interval (40 more teens smoked in 2004 than in 2005) Ratio data- quotient (twice as many students chose to skip psychology homework last year than this year. Name Hall of Fame John B. Watson- father of Behaviorism Stanley Milgram’s study on obedience to an authority “Clever Hans” the horse Wilhelm Wundt- est. 1st psychology lab, in Germany William James- wrote Principles of Psychology; still highly respected today for its insights Statistics and Research Methods • Essay Themes • Designing and critiquing of experiments

3. Key Concepts The Neural Chain— consists of neurons- cells in the brains; dendrites- branch-like projections that receive messages from other neurons; soma-the cell body; axon- the “tail” of the neuron along which electrical signals are conducted. Terminals- knobs at the end of axon; neurotransmitters are released into synapse (the gap between the terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of receiving neuron); after neuron is fired there is refractoryperiod where the cell can’t fire again. Neurotransmitters can be excitatory (stimulating) or inhibitory (slowing); agonist –drugs that mimic action of neurotransmitters; antagonist- drug that blocks action of neurotransmitter The Nervous System—consists of CNS- brain and spinal cord; PNS- sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; PNS divided into 2- somaticsystem- controls voluntary actions of the body & autonomic system- largely voluntary and is further broken down into the sympathetic and parasympathetic system Frontal- “executive” of brain, carrying out planning, decision making and judgement Parietal- houses the somatosensory area, governs sense of touch, temp., and pain. Occipital- houses the visual cortex Temporal- houses auditorycortex, processes info from both Reticular Formation- area that controls the arousal to attend to stimuli Thalamus- located in midbrain; routes or relays sensory info to appropriate destinations. Medulla- “old brain”- helps control breathing and swallowing. Cerebellum- center for motor function; Pons- oldest structure of brain. Limbic System: Hippocampus: forms new memories; Amygdala: associated with anger, fear, sex drive, responsible for evaluating “emotional relevance” of incoming info; Hypothalamus: works w/pituitary gland to regulate eating, drinking, sex drive Genetic predisposition: humans are born w/a tendency toward certain behaviors or characteristics (NOT “BORN WITH TRAITS”) Name Hall of Fame Roger Sperry’s experiments w/ “split brain”(severed corpus callosum-structure connecting 2 halves of the brain) patients concluded that the left side of the body is governed by right brain and vice versa. He also found that the left side of the brain houses language centers- including BROCA’S area (controls speech muscles via motor cortex and WERNICKE’S area (allows words to have meaning, or interprets auditory code). Split brain patients are able to adapt over time. Phineas Gage: injured in accident doing RR work; personality altered after metal rod driven through skull in frontal lobe and severed it from limbic system. BiologicalBases of Behavior • Essay Themes • How do neurotransmitters and hormones work to affect our behavior • Know the basic functions/structures of brain • Concept of genetic predispositions

4. Key Concepts Sensation- process of attending to and taking in stimuli from the environment (Sound, taste, touch, smell and vision) Hearing; Pitch- a tone’s highness or lowness Taste- four sensations: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Emotional responses to taste are hard-wired We can still taste even without our tongue. Smell- five million receptor cells at each nasal cavity Olfactory receptors- recognize different odors. Touch- four senses: pressure, warmth, could and pain Vestibular sense-body balance, located at the semicircular canals in the inner ear; Kinesthetic sense- body part position and movement, receptors: in joints and muscles Sensory interaction- the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste Visual system; Rods- sees black/right, and light/dark; Cones- sees color, and clarity/acuity Visual cortex- responsible for processing visual information Blind spot- back of the eye, no rods and cones Trichromatic theory- three colors, red, green, and blue, combine to see other colors Opponent process theory- two kinds of cones (red and green)(blue and yellow) Absolute threshold- minimum amount of stimulus you can detect at least 50% of the time it is presented Difference threshold- the smallest difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect at least 50% of the time Weber’s Law- two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for a difference between them to be detected Extrasensory Perception; Telepathy- mind to mind communication; Clairvoyance- perceiving remote events; Precognition- perceiving future events Selective and divided attention- Select what information to pay attention to, and pay attention to different things at the same time. Gestalt- organized whole Grouping- perceptual tendency to organized stimuli into coherent groups Name Hall of Fame Ernst Weber- Weber’s Law Gustav Fechner- the just noticeable difference or difference threshold Sensation and Perception • Essay Themes • Set, expectancy, schemas- our perceptual set or mindset affects our perception of the world around us; our past experiences lead us to expect certain outcomes; our schema is a framework we have in our heads based on our past experiences

5. Key Concepts Sleep- Five stages of sleep, stages 1-4 progress from light to deep sleep, stage 5 is called R.E.M. (“rapid eye movement”): Sleep cycle goes from 1,2,3,4 then back down 4,3,2,1, and then enters REM Stage 1- light sleep, characterized by fairly rapid brain wave activity (recorded on EEG) Stage 2- characterized by sleep spindles, spikes of very rapid electrical activity (largest percent of total sleep time spent in stage 2) Stage 3&4- deep sleep or delta sleep, breathing and heart rate decrease REM- active sleep/paradoxical sleep, brain is active, elevated hear rate and blood pressure, major muscle groups are paralyzed, where dreaming occurs; REM deprivation studies suggest we need REM sleep circadian rhythms- our biological clock (daily rhythm) restorative theory- we sleep in order to rest/recuperate; memory consolidation theory- we sleep so we can dream in order to sift through the day’s good/bad memories; adaptive non-respondingtheory- evolutionary theory that it has always been safer/adaptive (good for one’s survival) to sleep at night Sleep Disorders -Hypersomnia- getting/needing too much sleep -Narcolepsy- a sudden, involuntary drop into sleep -Apnea- sufferer frequently stops breathing during the nigh and must “re-start” themselves by awakening to some degree -Night terrors- a frightened awakening w/ high physiological arousal (sweating, increased heart rate, etc) w/ no recall in the morning Dreams -Activation-synthesis theory- we “synthesize” or combine random elements into a “dream” or story line -Most well known dream theory comes from Freudian psychoanalytic school of thought; Freud: “dreams are the holy road to the unconscious” Hypnosis -Two interpretations: (1) very relaxed state in which the subject is more open to suggestion; (2) altered state of consciousness (Ernest Hilgard) Psychoactive Drugs-a chemical substance that impacts behavior, perceptions, moods, or mental processes -Hallucinogens- alter perceptions; Opiates- suppress pain and induce euphoria; Stimulants- activate nervous system (i.e. speed up bodily function); Depressants- slow nervous system activity Name Hall of Fame -Hobson and McCarley- activation-synthesis dream theory -Enest Hilgard -Martin Orne- study of hypnosis -Sigmund Freud States of Consciousness Essay Themes Know about Freud and psychoanalysis for part of a possible essay question

6. Key Concepts Classical Conditioning- based on the making of associations Ex: getting excited when you hear the music of an ice cream truck due to the music reliably predicting the arrival of the truck Taste Aversions: associate illness with certain food Counter-conditioning ( replace “relaxation” with “fear”) Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner); connects behaviors with the consequences; Positive reinforcement (encourages good behavior); Negative reinforcement (encourages bad behavior); Punishment (discourages behavior); Primary reinforcers (unlearned); Secondary reinforcers (learned) Continuous Schedules- Fixed Ratio (FR)=specified number of desired responses; Variable Ratio (VR)=amount of responses not specified; Fixed Interval (FI)=specified passage of time; Variable Interval (VI)=varied period of time Name Hall of Fame Ivan Pavlov 1. experimented with dog’s salivation after hearing a metronome without the presentation of food, dogs associate tone with food 2. unconditioned stimulus (food), conditioned stimulus (metronome), unconditioned response ( salivation at presentation of food), conditioned response ( salivation at the sound of metronome) John B. Watson 1. studied behaviorism 2. Little Albert (white rat->loud noise=fearful response) B. F. Skinner 1. connects behaviors with the consequences Social/Observational Learning: Insight Learning (Kohler); Latent Learning (Tolman); Learned Helplessness (Seligman) Learning Theory • Essay Themes • Compare/contrast operant and classical conditioning • The major schools of thought in Psychology (Behaviorism, Psychoanalytic, Cognitive, Biomedical, Humanist)

7. Key Concepts Retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storage Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test Implicit memories- retention independent of conscious recollection. Also called procedural memory. Explicit memories- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” Also called declarative memory. Serial position effect- our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Framing- the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. Scans of the brain in action, and autopsies of people who had amnesia, reveal that new explicit memories of names, images, and events are laid down via a limbic system structure called the hippocampus. When brain scans capture the brain giving birth to a memory they reveal activity in the hippocampus as well as in certain areas of the frontal lobes Forgetting: Proactive interference- the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. Retroactive interference- the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. Suppress- bring out happy memories Repress- bury painful memories Decay- the storage of memory decays as time goes on Memory encoding – the more something is processed, the better the chances of recall; Chunking – a means of facilitating encoding by breaking up numbers into 'chunks‘; Schema – a cognitive framework based on your current assumptions Encoding error types, illustration using the 7 dwarfs – Semantic – remembering a dwarf who was really smart (the dwarf was doc) Acoustic – remembering dumpy or bumpy (the dwarf was grumpy) Visual – remembering that one dwarf had no beard (Dopey) Structural – Remembering most characters had names that end in 'ey' Name Hall of Fame Elizabeth Loftus- people repress and suppress their memories; eyewitness testimony study Memory Essay Themes Eyewitness recalls- can we trust it? Short-term memory and long term memory- how they work together?

8. Key Concepts THOUGHT: Concepts- ideas that are grouped together because of shared characteristic.; ex- Scottie and poodle- both dogs, but different; Prototype is the best example of a particular thing;Convergent thinking- the answer that one believes is what someone else wants to hear; Divergent thinking- creative thinking "thinking outside of the box“; Incubation-leave an idea for a while and allow the mind to work on it unconsciously; Humans are unique- metacognition which is thinking about one's own thinking and problem solving skills. Algorithm is a step-by-step method of that guarantees a solution while heuristics are shortcuts, but doesn't promise an answer; Availability heuristic is judging a situation according to what evidence is available ex-(afraid of plane crashes because they are more televised, when car crashes are much more common.); Representativeness heuristic is judging based on what we expect based on what we have experieced in the past. Humans are sometimes limited by functional fixedness where people can only see something for it's conventional use; Mental set is fixation of a particular way to solve a problem, trying to solve all problem the same way; Framing- a way of presenting a problem that influences the way it is viewed; Confirmation bias is our willingness to believe information that supports our views and ignore ones that differ from our view points. Language: How we acquire language and how it effects behavior is called psycholinguistics; There is a debate between psychologists about to what extent we are programmed for language before birth; stages of speech development. Cooing (2 months), Babbling (same around the world at first, but then develops the basic sounds, or phonemes, of the surrounding language), Holophrastic (express thoughts in one word), Telegraphic speech (2 or 3 words) Name Hall of Fame Noam Chomsky- theory of Language Acquisition device Richard Kahnemon and Amos Tverley- researched problem solving "Genie" and Victor "the wild child"- case studies about nature vs. nurture with regards to language and critical periods Whorfian Hypothosis or Linguistic Relativity Theory- says that language influences the way we think Thought and Language Essay Themes Critical Period Theory- window of time when a child is most ready to learn language, and if this opportunity is missed, they might never be able to catch up

9. Key Concepts Developmental theories divided into 2 categories: 1.) Continuity theory– propose that development is very gradual; 2) Discontinuity theory– changes occur more dramatically Teratogen is anything that harms the organism prenatal Ex. Alcohol Imprinting is a newborns response to a stimulus in its environment; Konrad Lorenz tinkered with this natural mechanism by replacing a mother duck with a surrogate Harry Harlow refers to human newborns that need physical touch as contact comfort Reflexes-Sucking, grasping, rooting (baby imitates steps), and moro or startle reflex Babies mimic facial expressions 4 stages of cognitive development -Sensorimotor stage (birth – 2yrs) –explore environment; Preoperational stage (2 -7 yrs)- child pretend plays; Concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs)- logical thinking; Formal operational stage (11 yrs and on)- considers future Primary sex characteristics- directly involved with reproduction; Secondary sex characteristics- development of puberty Elisabeth Kubler-Ross: Formulated a stage theory addressing our encounters with grief; 5 stages- Denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance Laurence Kohlberg used a fictional story called “The Heinz Dilemma” to evaluate levels of moral reasoning in children -Preconventional level (4- 10 yrs old) focus is rewarded -Conventional level (10– 13 yrs old) focus on social conventions -Postconventioanl level (13) moral decisions based on right or wrong Name Hall of Fame Eleanor Gibson did a visual cliff apparatus Jean Plaget studied the thinking of youngsters Mary Ainsworth found attachment styles for children: -Avoidant-child ignores mother when returns -Secure-child distressed when mother leaves -Resistant-child sends mix message -Disorganized-child appears confused Diana Baumrind described a set of parenting styles -Authoritarian-parents establish rules; strict -Authoritative-parents are willing to listen; explain rules -Permissive-parents give children their freedom -Neglectful-parents ignore raising their children -Democratic-everyone has equal say in the family Erik Erikson; Stage theory of psychosocial development across the life span: -Trust vs. mistrust (birth – 18 m) -Autonomy vs. shame (18 m – 3 yrs old) sense of internal control -Initiative vs. guilt (3 – 7 yrs old) sense of right and wrong -Industry vs. inferiority (7 – 10 yrs old) masters basic skills for success in society -Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) Who am I? -Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood) -Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) adults share their wisdom or is resentful -Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) older adults reflect back on their life Developmental Psych Essay Themes Stage Theories Nature vs. Nurture debate

10. Key Concepts Ethology- focuses on biological bases for behavior. “Instinct”: innate, preprogrammed, “unlearned” behavior in response to some stimulus Sociobiology- people behave in ways that are most likely to perpetuate and assure the survival of their own genes. Drive Theory- we all have needs that must be fulfilled. Maintain homeostasis. Cognitive Dissonance Theory- we strive to bring our thoughts, attitudes and behaviors into agreement with each other. “Cognitive homeostasis” Arousal Theory- each of us has his/her own sense of appropriate arousal and we act in ways to remain at a comfortable arousal level. Yerkes Dodson Law: prediction about the relationship between arousal level and performance suggests that there is an interaction between aroused states, the difficulty of the task to be carried out and eventual performance on that task. Incentive Theory- we are pulled toward behaviors by rewards or incentives; External (extrinsic motivation)- payment, cash; Internal (intrinsic motivation)- personal satisfaction Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs- Maslow theorized that we all have needs we must meet. We are motivated to meet those needs; Physiologic needs- food and water; Shelter and safety needs; Need for belonging and companionship; Self esteem; Self actualization Lateral Hypothalamus- hunger center Ventromedial Hypothalamus- satiety center Cultural Contributions- TV “ideals” of beauty Social Contributions- eating at “social events” External Cues- food is prepared. “Time for lunch” Aggression Hostile Aggression- carried out for its own sake; Instrumental Aggression- aggression working toward some other goal besides the aggression itself. Ex: bumping someone out of the way to get possession of the ball. Emotion; James-Lange Theory- physiological changes occur and then later label those signs of emotion; Cannon-Bard Theory- recognition of physiological changes and the awareness of the emotion are processed simultaneously by the thalamus; Schachter-Singer Theory- one can interpret the identical physical sensations differently according to the context in which they occur. Name Hall of Fame Abraham Maslow- Hierarchy of needs Clark Hull- Drive theory Edmund Wilson- Sociobiology Konrad Lorenz- ethology Leon Festinger- Cognitive Dissonance Theory Motivation and Emotion Essay Themes Opponent Process Theory Account for some particular human behavior from the different motivation perspectives [ie: ethology, sociobiology, etc.]

11. Key Concepts Personality Theories: -Nature vs Nurture- predisposed biology or learned behavior. -Stability of personality across situations- do we have characteristics same no matter the situation? -Situationist- people have different personalities for different situations Trait Theory -Trait- characteristic tendency toward certain behaviors or emotions no matter what the situation. -Cardinal trait- dominates. Central trait- second most dominant. Secondary trait- less defining. -Factor analysis- 16 personality factors to catalog traits -Type A personality- driven, competitive, rigid, intense; Type B personality- laid back, easy going -Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism Psychoanalytic Theory -Unconscious conflict, having to do with early childhood (Freud); Iceberg effect:- conscious mind on top, unconscious mind bottom of iceberg; Id- unconscious mind; Ego- how one behaves; Superego- how one should behave; Defense mechanisms-denial, projection, regression, and suppression; Psychosexual stages- Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital Neo-Freudians- Jung and Horney- thought Freud put too much emphasis on male bias and sexual conflict Social Cognitive Theory and Behavioral Theory- Self efficacy-sense that one can control outcomes in ones environment; Attribution Theory- situational, dispositional, fundamental; Explanatory styles- how you explain a situation, positively or negatively Humanistic Theory - People strive to reach fullest potential, which includes self-actualization and fully functioning. Name Hall of Fame Perspective/Name Psychoanalytic/Freud Learning/Skinner Social cognitive/ Behavioral/Bandura Humanist/Maslow Personality • Essay Themes • Explain anxiety/depression from each of the following perspectives: psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, etc.

12. Key Concepts Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)/ Emotional Quotient (E.Q.): I.Q.= mental age/chronological age x 100, E.Q. or emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. Mental age: chronological age typical of a given level of performance; applies to children only Gifted/retarded: gifted- high I.Q., over 130 to 140; retarded- low I.Q., below 70 Flynn effect: I.Q. scores have steadily risen in America in the last half century Achievement vs aptitude tests: mastery of some body of knowledge or skills vs ability to do or learn something in the future; Performance vs paper and pencil: actually doing a task vs tests like those in school Personality assessment: “self report inventories”- ex) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (M.M.P.I.) and Myers-Briggs Inventory; Projective tests: subject’s impression of ambiguous stimuli is thought to “say something” about that individual, ex) Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test (T.A.T.) Characteristics of Sound Assessment: Standardized- given in same manner, under same time limitations, and with identical instructions from administrator to administrator; Norms:-established by giving an assessment to a representative sample of individuals similar to the population for whom the test is designed; Reliability- consistency of scoring procedures, types of reliability-test/retest, split half, inter-rater, intra-rater; Validity- whether or not the test actually assesses what it claims to assess Name Hall of Fame Defining Intelligence Charles Spearman: General Intelligence (G) and Specific Intelligence (S) Louis Thurstone: identified eight clusters of primary mental abilities; opposed Spearman’s G J. P. Guilford: “cube” model- like a rubics cube where each block is a type of intellectual ability, over 100 types in model Raymond Cattell: crystallized intelligence-accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, increases with age and fluid intelligence- ability to reason speedily and abstractly, decreases with age Robert Sternberg’s: Triarchic Theory- agrees with MI, believes in three aspects of intelligence- analytical, creative, and practical Howard Gardner’s: theory of multiple intelligences (MI), intelligence is not one thing but made up of many things Testing Alfred Binet: father of intelligence testing, first person to develop intelligence test, the test assessed one’s ability to learn Lewis Terman: Standford-Binet, amended English version of Binet’s test, still used today to measure I.Q. David Wechsler: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), these are the most commonly used I.Q. tests, tests developed for specific age groups Testing and Individual Differences Essay Themes Test bias: two types of bias- test detects not only innate differences but also differences caused by cultural experiences, often test items make middle-class assumptions; bias can also mean whether a test is less valid for some groups than for others Culture fair testing: similar to test bias, cultures vary so intelligence will vary from culture to culture

13. Key Concepts Clinical psychology: field of study devoted to the causes, characteristics, and treatments of psychological disorders DSM-IV-R: Diagnostic and statistical manual; helps clinicians to identify mental disorders; controversial because labels from manual could cause the individual to live up to the symptoms accompanying the disease Operational definition of each disorder: describe their characteristics and the frequency and duration of those symptoms Abnormal Behavior: behavior that is disturbing to others, violates cultural standards, disturbing to self, and irrational and maladaptive Mood or Affective disorders: Major depression: deep sadness, feeling hopeless; Seasonal affective: major depression triggered by changes in season; Bipolar: sudden shifts in mood from deep depression to extreme euphoria Biomedical model: focuses on brain chemistry Sociocultural theorists: social and environmental factors lead to a disorder Dissociative disorders: Dissociative fugue: amnesia and physical relocation; Dissociative amnesia: large scale memory loss for events or identity Types of Schizophrenia; Paranoid: delusions and hallucinations; Disorganized: confused speech and inappropriate emotions; Catatonic: no emotion or responsibility and “frozen” body parts; Undifferentiated: category for all others Diathesis: stress model- biological predisposition & environment Developmental disorders; Autism, Attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, Conduct disorder Personality disorders: Antisocial: rebellious, deceitful, manipulative; Narcissistic: exaggerated sense of one’s own value; Histrionic: insatiable need for attention; Paranoid: chronic sense of being observed; Border line : “instability” Somatoform disorders: Conversion disorder: convert psychological stress to physical symptoms; Hypochondriasis: preoccupation with fear of an illness Name Hall of Fame David Rosenhan: conducted a study that showed how the application of a label influences how subsequent behaviors are perceived. He reported hearing voices, was admitted to an institution as a schizophrenic. Once admitted he returned to normal behavior and never reported auditory hallucinations. No one from the staff ever caught on even though he remained a patient for 3 wks. Abnormal Psychology • Essay Themes • Major schools of psychological thought

14. Key Concepts trephining- drilling of hole into skull of patient to show evil disorder causing spirits the door Philipe Pinel (19th century France) + Dorthea Dix (19th Century America) tried to get other to see sufferers require nurturance and treatment, not incarceration. 20th century- deinstitutionalization, those with mental disorders can be helped, even cured Psychiatrist- medical doctor with specialty in mental health, can prescribe medicine; Clinical psychologist- PhD rather than MD, refer you to get medicine; Counselor- licensed to practice psychotherapy Eclectic- rely on many different techniques Key to success- warmth/trust in relationship Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Model -Psychoanalytic- achieve insight through uncovering of unconscious internal conflict; Free association- patient lets mind roam freely, release of feelings is cathartic; Word association;Dream Interpretation -Psychodynamic- attempts to focus more on here and now, weekly/less long term therapy sessions Behavioral Model- Classical/operant conditioning with social learning; Token economies- reinforcers for desired behavior, trade in coin for some reward; Aversive therapy- stop problematic behaviors with negative association; Systematic desensitization- most successful, deconditioning responses to fears, aka counter-conditioning (replacing one response with a more desirable one); Implosion/implosive therapy- mental flooding Cognitive Model -focus on hurtful/irrational though processes Name Hall of Fame Albert Ellis – rational emotive therapy (Cognitive) Aaron Beck (cognitive school of thought) Neo-Freudians: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney David Rosenham Abraham Maslow – motivation and personality theory Carl Rogers – “Rogerian Approach,” person/client centered therapy, UPR (unconditional positive regard) Philipe Pinel (19th century France) + Dorthea Dix (19th Century America) tried to get other to see sufferers require nurturance and treatment, not incarceration. Treatment of Psychological Disorders Essay Themes major schools of psychological thought

15. Key Concepts Social psychology examines the impact of groups on individuals exploring the human interplay between self and others. Di-individualization: a term used to account for some individual behaviors in group settings. This could describe any sense of the loss of identity and personal responsibility in a crowd. Social trap: sometimes individuals behave in ways that are unproductive simply because they fear others might do so. “Tragedy of the commons”: this is a kind of social trap. A long-term self-interest is best supported by cooperation, but people often end up competing, to the detriment of all. Social loafing: individuals in a group that apply less effort then they would if on their own. Group think: members of a group find themselves “going along” with the flow of the group. Group polarization; group decisions end up as extreme versions of the individual members’ predispositions. Social facilitation: suggests that the audience influences you in ways that depend upon the task you are performing. Social inhibition: an audience gathers around when you are trying to do something you’ve never done before; it’s likely its presence will hinder your performance. Compliance: he has essentially persuaded you to choose to do what he wants to do. Name Hall of Fame Stanley Milgram- electric shock study Solomon Asch- conformity studies Philip Zimbardo- conducted “mock prison” study at Stanford University Fritz Heider- attribution theory Social Psychology • Essay Themes • Obedience and conformity (the studies of Asch and Milgram) • Attribution theory and the attitudes and concept of prejudice