Political Violence and Terrorism in Post-War Europe, 1968-2001

1. Political Violence and Terrorism in Post-War Europe, 1968-2001 The End stages of European Terrorism?

2. Defining Terrorism • According to the scholar Paul Wilkinson, the key identifiable characteristics of political terror are as follows: • Indiscriminate • Unpredictability • Arbitrariness • Ruthless destructiveness • Implicitly immoral/antinomian

3. Defining terrorism, cont. • A mindless or senseless use of force? • Or, a deliberate calibration of violence and fear in order to produce a desired political effect?

4. Defining Terrorists • What role does ideology play in determining whether or not a group(s) can be legitimately labeled “terrorists.” (E.g., “propaganda by the deed,” iconography.) • How is violence related to terrorism? (Killing enemies: Casualties of declared wars are regarded as justifiable homicides. Casualties caused by bombings, sabotage, etc. in every other social context are usually associated with terrorism. • What role does the media play in defining terrorists and terrorism? (Stereotypes, images of violence, etc.)

5. Ethics of Terrorism • Can any radical social/political movement justify on moral grounds the use of terrorism as a means to an end?

6. Ethics of Terrorism • Is there a moral argument to be made for terrorist acts? (E.g., the so-called “terrorist’s” goal is: (1) to draw attention to “moral” crimes being committed against a group (s) which are being oppressed by the state or the dominant forces of the society in which they live; (2) to punish those guilty of committing such crimes; (3) to advance the “just” cause of those who are engaged in a struggle/warfare with their class and/or ideological enemies.

7. Depicting Terrorism/terrorists • Psychological/Sociological factors:- • Stereotyping terrorists: Sociopaths, outsiders, mentally deranged (Unabomber), etc. • Media’s role in promoting stereotypes: publicizing and sensationalizing violence and violent deeds. Examples, “Carlos the Jackal”; “Baader-Meinhof gang”. • Upholding values and beliefs of status quo? • Media “darlings”: Constructing the “romantic revolutionary” for public consumption. Examples, “Baader-Meinhof gang”; “Che” Guevara.

8. Defining terrorism, cont. • Terrorism as a means of advancing political goals or exercising political control, e.g., militant nationalist movements (ETA, IRA) and dictatorships (Nazism and Stalinism). • Shared terminology: Political terror (style of rule) vs. political terrorism vs. random acts of terrorism.

9. Cultural Dimension of Terrorism • Convergence of Cold War politics and domestic troubles. • Years of tensions/crises give way to a more peaceful, prosperous era. • 1960s – material well-being and collective realization of the dangers of Cold War confrontations (e.g., Cuban missile crisis, 1962), produce a cultural reaction to the Cold War.

10. Post-war, cont. • 1968 Radicalism and beyond = Student radicals and intellectuals who forcefully challenged the ideological and economic underpinnings of post-war society (mainly in the capitalist West.) Break-away groups of the 1970s – e.g., Baader-Meinhof (RAF) and BrigateRosse (BR) -- sought to awaken the revolutionary élan of the workers (masses) by attacking the pillars of the status quo.

11. 1968: A turning point? • Year when a new trend of terrorism began: • Palestinian air hijackings • Black Panther activism in U.S. (Democratic Convention in Chicago) • Militant Student movement in France, Italy, W. Germany, and G. Britain • Prague Spring

12. Emergence of a Counter-Culture • Escapism – Protest music (Folk songs, anti-war anthems) vs. hedonism (Beatles, Rolling Stones…) • Political manifestations – Student revolts in 1968 (France, W. Germany, Italy, Great Britain) • Prague Spring of 1968 – “Human Face” of communism? • Left-wing radicalism: Neither East nor West? (Anarchism, Maoism, Situationism, Trotskyism)

13. Voices of Dissent • Daniel Cohn-Bendit: Agenda for the New Left. • Critique of “old school” of communism: Authoritarian Marxism (Bolshevism), Communist Party of France (PCF), role of trade unions. • How is New Left defined? • Leading ideological/cultural figures: Albert Camus, Guy Debord (Situationism), Antonio Gramsci, Che Guevara, Mao Zedong.

14. Post-1968 generation • Militant radicalism: challenging the prevailing systems with direct action. • Baader-Meinhof • BrigateRoss • Angry Brigade, Action Direct, etc.

15. Social and Political Context of Terrorism during 1970s and 1980s • Rise of xenophobia in W. Europe (immigrant populations, etc.) • Persistence of right-wing extremism (neo-Nazis activity in W. Germany, Neo-fascism in Italy and elsewhere.)

16. State responses to new wave of politically-motivated violence/terrorism • Repressing dissent and eradicating radicalism (culture of protest = violence). • Campaign to discredit messages of Counter-cultural movement. “Us” vs. “Them”: Issues = Vietnam, status quo (economic, political, etc.) of Cold War era…)

17. End of Political Terrorism in Europe? • Decline of Cold War tensions: 1985-1989 • Economic and Political integration of Europe (1986-) • Democratization of greater Europe (Western and former “bloc” countries.) • Rise of religious conflicts between East and West.

18. Terrorism in the 21st Century • Terrorism equated with war against western civilization.