DECISION MAKING

1. DECISION MAKING Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills 11th Edition David W. Johnson Frank P. Johnson

2. Chapter Seven: Objectives • Understand What Decision Making Is And What Makes It Effective • Understand The Reasons Why Groups Make Better Decisions Than Individuals • Know The Different Methods Of Decision Making • Understand The Factors Hindering Group Decision Making • Understand How To Make Considered And Thoughtful Decisions • Refine Your Skills In Helping Groups Make Effective Decisions

3. Decision Making • Decision: Reaching Agreement Among Group Members As To Which Of Several Courses Of Action Is Most Desirable For Achieving The Group’s Goals • Decision Effectiveness: • Resources Of Group Members Are Fully Utilized • Time Is Well Used • Decision Is Correct Or Of High Quality • Solves The Problem So It Does Not Reoccur • Can Be Implemented • Possible To Provide Needed Time, People, Materials • Decision Is Implemented Fully By All Required Group Members • Problem-Solving Ability Of Group Is Improved

4. Individual Vs. Group Decisions • Groups Typically Make Better Decisions Than Individuals • Learn Faster • Make Fewer Errors • Recall Information Better • Produce Higher-Quality Products • Process Gain: Interaction Among Members Results In Ideas, Insights, Strategies That No Member Previously Thought Of • Incorrect Solutions May Be Recognized And Rejected • More Accurate And Extensive Memory OF Facts And Events • Each Member May Have Unique Information Unknown To Others • Greater Member Motivation • More Risk Taking • Greater Commitment To Implementation • Diversity Increases Variety Of Resources • Increased Quality Of Reasoning, Creativity

5. Social Facilitation • Social Facilitation: Enhancement Of Well-Learned Responses In Presence Of Others • Social Impairment: Lowering Of Performance On Difficult, Complex Tasks In Presence Of Others • Zajonc: Presence Of Others Increases Physiological Arousal And This Increases Likelihood Of Engaging In Dominant Response • Baron: Presence Of Others Creates “Attentional Temptation,” Conflict Between Attending To Others Or To Task • Duval & Wickland: Presence Of Others Heightens Self-Consciousness, Which Increases Motivation • Bond: Presence Of Others Creates Need To Project Positive Image • Evaluation Apprehension (Concern About Being Judged) Creates Anxiety And Arousal

6. Group Polarization • Group Polarization: A Tendency For Groups To Make Decisions That Are More Extreme Than The Initial inclination Of Members (May Be More Risky Or Cautious) • Normative Influences: Members Advocate Perceived Group Position To Make Favorable Impression On Others • Informational Influences: Members Learn New Information That Make Them Modify Their Position • Social Identification: Individuals Identify With Group And Want To Be Considered Members

7. Involvement In Decision Making • Increase Quality Of Decision By Fully Utilizing Resources Of Each Member • Increase Member Commitment To Implement Decision

8. Changing Attitudes And Behavior • Group Discussion Changed Attitudes And Behavior More Than Lectures Or Reading • Critical Factors: • Public Commitment: Publicly State To Group You Will Implement Decision • Perceived Consensus In Group: Believe All Other Group Members Are Implementing Decision

9. Type Of Task • Steiner: • Divisible: Split Into Parts • Unitary: Done As Whole • Disjunctive: Group Score Is That Of Best Individual Member • Conjunctive: Group Score Is That Of Worse Individual Member • Additive: Group Score Is Sum Of Group Member Contributions • Discretionary: Group Score Is Any Combination Of Individual Member Efforts • Groups Outperform Individuals On Almost All Tasks: Under Some Conditions, Individuals Outperform Groups On Some Unitary Tasks

10. Potential Group Productivity • Potential Productivity: Groups’ Maximum Possible Level Of Productivity Depends On • Member Resources • Task Demands • Process Loss: • Coordination Losses: Members Do Not Organize Efforts Optimally • Motivation Losses: Members Are Not Optimally Motivated • Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity – Process Loss • Problems: • On Complex Tasks There Is More Than One Way To Define Productivity • People Can Be More Motivated In Groups Than When Working Alone • People Working Alone Often Do Not Perform Up To Potential

11. Member Diversity • Promise: • Increases Productivity And Achievement And Creativity • Cohesion: Positive Relationships (Absenteeism, Turnover, Satisfaction) And Decreases In Stereotyping And Prejudice • Increases Conflict (Which Has Positive Potential) • Increases Sophistication • Highlights Values Of Democracy • Dangers • Decreases Productivity And Achievement Due To Difficulties In Working Together • Negative Relationships, Increases In Stereotyping And Prejudice • Hard Work (Interaction Strain)

12. Computer-Mediated Decision Making • Groups Communicating Through Computers Generally Make Lower-Quality Decisions Than Face-To-Face Groups, Except When Groups Had Unlimited Time And Members Were Anonymous • Personal Relationships, Group Cohesion, Member Commitment Tend To Be Built Through Face-To-Face Interaction

13. Methods Of Decision Making • Authority Without Group Discussion • Expert Member • Decision By Averaging Individual Opinions • Authority After Group Discussion • Minority Control, Such As Executive Committee • Majority Control, Such As Majority Vote • Consensus: Every Member Agrees • All Members Committed To Implementing • Uses Resources Of All Members • Increases Future Decision Making Effectiveness • Characterized By Conflict, Member Confidence In Decision • Takes Time

14. Guidelines For Consensus • Seek Out Differences Of Opinion • Present Position Clearly, Logically • Critically Analyze Other Positions • Encourage Others To Present Best Case For Their Positions • Change Your Mind When Logically Persuaded • Avoid Conflict Reducing Procedures • Keep Goal Of Reaching Best Decision Possible Salient

15. Factors Hindering Group Decision Making • Lack Of Group Maturity • Uncritically Accepting Dominant Response (Initial Majority Opinion) • Social Loafing: Reduction Of Individual Effort: Additive Task, Anonymity • Free Riding: Disjunctive Tasks, Letting Another Member Do The Work • Motivation Loss Due To Perceived Inequity Of Effort • Groupthink And Defensive Avoidance • Poor Conflict Management • Egocentrism Of Group Members • Lack Of Sufficient Heterogeneity • Interference Or Production Blocking • Inappropriate Group Size • Premature Closure And Dissonance Reduction • Members Not Having Relevant Skills • Lack Of Individual Incentives For Contributing, Barriers To Contributing

16. Groupthink • Groupthink: Collective Striving For Unanimity, Avoiding Realistic Appraisal Of Alternatives • Concurrence Seeking: Members Inhibiting Discussion To Avoid Any Disagreement • Characteristics Of Groupthink: • Self-Censorship • Illusion Of Unanimity • Direct Pressure To Suppress Dissent • Mind Guards To Prevent Dissention • Illusion Of Invulnerability • Rationalization • Illusion Of Morality • Stereotyping And Moral Exclusion

17. Schedule: Winter Survival • Introduction • Individual Ranking • Group Ranking • Answers • Small Group Processing • Whole Class Processing

18. Decision-Making Task • Task: Rank from most important to least important • Goal Structures: • Individualistic: Rank By Yourself Without Talking With Others • Cooperative: One Ranking From Group, Everyone Must Agree, Everyone Must Be Able To Explain Rationale For Ranking • Criteria For Success: • 0 - 15 Everyone Survives In Good Health • 16 - 25 Everyone Survives, But Are Never The Same • 26 - 35 Half Survive In Poor Shape • 36 + Wings And Haloes For Everyone • Individual Accountability: One Member Will Be Randomly Selected To Explain Group’s Ranking • Expected Behaviors: Everyone Asks For Facts And Reasoning, Summarizes, Challenges; Does Not Change Mind Unless Persuaded • Intergroup Cooperation: Ask Other Groups For Help When Needed

19. Winter Survival: Ranking Sheet • Ball Of Steel Wool • Newspapers (One Per Person) • Compass • Hand Ax • Cigarette Lighter (Without Fluid) • Loaded .45-Caliber Pistol • Sectional Air Map Made Of Plastic • 20 x 20 Foot Piece Of Heavy-Duty Canvas • Extra Shirt And Pants For Each Survivor • Can Of Shortening • Quart Of 100-Proof Whiskey • Family-Size Chocolate Bar (One Per Person)

21. Winter Survival: Answer Key Cigarette Lighter (Without Fluid) Ball Of Steel Wool Extra Shirt And Pants For Each Survivor Can Of Shortening 20 x 20 Foot Piece Of Heavy-Duty Canvas Hand Ax Family-Size Chocolate Bar (One Per Person) Newspapers (One Per Person) Loaded .45-Caliber Pistol Quart Of 100-Proof Whiskey Sectional Air Map Made Of Plastic Compass

22. Thoughtful Decision Making • Identifying And Defining The Problem Or Issue • Gathering Information About The Existence Of Problem • Formulating And Considering Alternative Solutions • Deciding On Solution • Evaluating Extent And Success Of Implementation

23. Problem Solving Identify And Define Problem Diagnose Existence, Magnitude, Nature Of Problem Identify Alternative Courses Of Action Decide Which Alternative To Implement Implement Decision And Evaluate Effectiveness

24. Force Field Analysis • Problem seen as balance between forces working in opposite directions • Some helping, some restraining • Steps to follow • Brainstorm list of helping & restraining forces • Rank according to importance; agree on most important • Determine ways to strengthen helping forces and to reduce restraining forces • Reducing restraining forces does not foster resistance

25. Procedures to Avoid Groupthink • Impartial leadership • Critical evaluator role for every member • Members assigned role of devil’s advocate • Outside experts asked to challenge views of group

26. Implementation Evaluation • Process evaluation • Was the solution successfully implemented? • Outcome evaluation • What were the effects of implementing the strategy?

27. Problems With Theorizing On Decision Making • Research Has Focused On Quality Of Decision. In Real Life, Most Decisions Cannot Be Evaluated. • Theorizing And Research Assumes That Decision Makers Are Completely Informed. In Real Life, No One Is Completely Informed. • Problems Are Avoided By Studying Process Of Decision Making (Not Quality) And Making Process More Systematic And Rationale

28. Major Points • Decision Making Involves A Choice Among Alternative Courses Of Action • Groups Typically Make Better Decisions Than Individuals • Different Methods Of Decision Making May Be Used, Depending On The Situation • There Are A Variety Of Factors That Hinder The Effectiveness Of Group Decision Making • There Is A Procedure For Making Considered And Thoughtful Decisions • Group Members Should Continuously Refine Their Skills In Helping Groups Make Effective Decisions