1522- Pascual de Andagoya, Spanish explorer, became the first European to set foot in Peru

2. 1450- The massive architecture of the Incas, Machu Pitcchu, consisting of finely dressed irregular blocks of stone, becomes a feature of Cuzco 1450- Punchao, a great golden disc, is made a symbol of the sun Mid 1400s- The town of Ollantaytambowas build as a royal estate of Emperor Pachacuti who conquered the region. 1460- Machu Pitcchu, the mountain "city“, served as a religious retreat for the royal family. 1463- The Chimu empire in Peru is conquered by the Incas under the leadership of Pachacuti's son Topa 1471-Topa succeeds his father, Pachacuti, as emperor of the Incas 1480-Mummy Juanita was buried on Mount Ampato in southern Peru 1487- The Inca empire is extended to the north and a second capital is established at Quito 1493-On Topa's death his son Huayna Capac succeeds to the throne as Inca emperor 1500- The Inca empire has about 25,000 miles of well-serviced roads, designed for caravans of llamas 1500- In Cuzco's great temple, sacrifices begin of llamas and sometimes humans 1505-The Incas triumphed over the Cayambissoldiers, and spilled their corpses into the Lake of Yaguarcocha  1516- Manco Inca Yupanqui was born. He is one of the last rulers of the Inca Empire

3. 1522- Pascual de Andagoya, Spanish explorer, became the first European to set foot in Peru 1525- The Inca emperor, Huayna Capac, dies in an epidemic of a western disease, smallpox 1527-Huayna Capac died and was succeeded by his heir Ninan Cuyochi 1530- Francisco Pizarro sails from Panama to attempt the conquest of Peru 1531- Francisco Pizarro leads 168 men, with about 30 horses, into the territory of the Inca empire 1532-Battle of Cajamarca: The Spanish army took the Inca emperor Atahualpa prisoner, marking the end of his empire 1533- Pizarro has Atahuallpa executed and installs Manco as a puppet ruler of the Incas 1535- Pizarro moves the Inca capital from Cuzco to Lima 1536- Spanish soldiers stopped an Indian revolt and the Incans fled to Peru’s Vilcabamba region 1540- The native population of Ollantaytambo was assigned in to Hernando Pizarro 1542- The Viceroyalty of Peru, a Spanish colonial administrative district, was created 1553- Pedro Cieza de Leon wrote the first European description of the potato in his “Chronicles of Peru.” 1560-Sebastian Garcilaso, a Peruvian conquistador, sailed to Spain to be educated 1569- Saint Martinus de Porres, was born in Peru

4. 1573- An extensive forced mining labor system is established in Peru and Bolivia 1578- Sir Francis Drake sailed into the port of Valparaiso. He ravaged the coasts of Chile and Peru on his way around the world. 1580- Tupac Amuru, an Inca leader, held out against the Spanish conquest after most of the empire had been subdued, but the Spanish eventually broke of Inca rule 1590- Peruvian conquistador, Sebastian Garcilaso, published Los dialogos de mor in Madrid 1600-Arequipa, Peru, was destroyed by an earthquake 1600- The eruption of Huaynaputina, a volcano in southern Peru, impacted the entire world. 1605- Peruvian conquistador, Sebastian Garcilaso, published La Florida del Inca 1616- Sebastian Garcilaso died. 1617- Rosa de Lima of Peru became the first American saint to be canonized 1623-Dutch ships departed for the conquest of Peru 1630- An earthquake hit Lima 1640- The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless in 1640, but helped lead to the formation of South American countries including Peru 1656- Pedro Bohorquez announced to the Calchaqui Indians that he was the last living descendant of the Inca emperors

5. 1659- Bohorquez led the Calchaqui in an uprising against the Spanish crown 1667- Bohorquez was executed and displayed in Lima 1668- Arequipa was hit by another earthquake 1670- The book, Ilustracion de la Rosa del Peru, was published 1675- Ceremonial Pouring Vessel were being used in Peru 1686- City walls were constructed in Lima 1700- Lima lost its reputation as an economic center of Peru because its silver export fell to under 2 million pesos 1710- A book by Jean Descola was written about the daily life in colonial Peru during 1710 1717- The New Kingdom of Granada became an independent viceroyalty under the Spanish crown 1730- A new silver coin was made 1742- Juan Santos Atahualpa, a leader of a rebellion group from Peru, led a failed uprising against the Spanish colonial government 1746- An earthquake destroys much of Lima, and an ensuing tidal wave engulfs its port at Callao. 18,000 people died 1750- The Treaty of Tordesillas was superseded by the Treaty of Madrid which allowing the Spanish in control of Peru 1759- Spain tried to increase revenue flow in Spanish American countries including Peru

6. 1765- New Peruvian coins designs were made on the currency 1776-Spanish America is now administered as four viceroyalties - New Spain, New Granada, New Peru and La Plata 1780-An Indian uprising in Spanish Peru is led by a descendant of the Incas, Tupac Amaru 1790- Jew hunting in Peru started to come to an end 1800- The population of Peru was about 1.2 million 1812- The great fire of Guayaquil destroyed half the city 1821- San Martín declared the independence of Peru 1824- Battle of Ayacucho: The Spanish army was defeated, marking the end of Spanish rule in South America 1837- The Peru-Bolivian Confederacy was established 1839- The Peru-Bolivian Confederacy was officially disbanded 1849- About 100,000 Chinese arrived as laborers in Peru 1855- A 7.2 earthquake hit Peru 1862- Peruvian slavers arrived on Easter Island. Slaves that eventually returned brought smallpox 1866-A Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Casto Mendez Nunez surrounded the port city of Callao 1867- German businessman, Augusto R. Berns, purchased land across Machu Picchu. He planned to plunder the site

7. 1868 - A magnitude 9.0 quake in Arica, Peru (later Chile), generated catastrophic tsunamis; more than 25,000 people were killed in South America 1875- A new Peruvian silver coin design was made 1879- Chile declared war on Peru and Bolivia 1883-Under the Treaty of Ancon, the war ended with Peru losing southern territory to Chile 1890- Cotton farming grew in popularity 1890-1894- Remigio Morales Bermudezwas president of Peru 1902- US-owned Cerro de Pasco Corp. started to buy up mines in Peru and brought industrial mining 1911- Hiram Bingham, American explorer, was led by local guides to a Lost City of the Incas; he also explored Manchu Pitcchu 1920-Darkest Peru, an action and horror novel was written by Chad Arthur Evans Late 1920’s- Foreign firms accounted for over 60 percent of Peru's exports 1932-Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Extradition 1936- Mario Vargas Llosa, Peruvian novelist was born 1941- Peru goes to war with Ecuador over the northern Amazon 1945- Peru, Paraguay, Chile and Ecuador joined the United Nations 1945-Peru declared war on Germany 1948- A military coup installed General Manuel A. Odria as President of Peru

8. 1952- The U.S. signed a military aid pact with Peru 1956- Odria allowed free elections 1958 - Vice President Nixon was stoned in Lima, Peru 1958- The city of Arequipa was hit by an earthquake 1960- Arequipa, Peru, was hit by another earthquake 1962- Eruptions on Mount Huascaran in Peru destroyed 7 villages and killed 3,500 1963- Fernando Belaundewas elected president 1965- Peru cut a trail through the jungle into Brazil 1966 - Peru and Argentina soccer fans fought in Lima and 248 died 1967- Peru and 3 other countries in South America banned trade of vicuna, a relative of the llama 1968- A new military government of Peru seized the country's oil fields 1969- Russia and Peru signed their first trade accord 1970 - A 7.7 earthquake in Peru killed 67,000, injured 50,000 and destroyed 186,000 buildings 1973- Peru outlawed the export of rain forest birds 1975- Peru’s sugar output peaked at 1 million tons 1978- The Amazon Pact was established between Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela

9. 1980- Fernando Belaunde Terry was elected president of Peru; a democracy was restored 1981-The UN Security Council chose Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru to be the fifth secretary-general of the world body 1982- Debt crisis and deaths escalate following a military crackdown on guerrillas and drug traffickers 1985- APRA candidate, Alan Garcia Perez wins the presidency 1987- A movement led by Mario Vargas Llosa, Peru's best-known novelist, blocks plans to nationalize banks 1988- Hyperinflation and bankruptcy rock Peru; the country seeks assistance from the International Monetary Fund 1988- In northern Peru, a tomb was looted and its contents put on the black market 1990- Human rights groups estimate as many as 10,000 political murders in Peru 1990- Peru’s inflation rate hit 7,500% 1990- Alberto Fujimori becomes president of Peru.  1990-The killing and selling of dolphins became illegal in Peru 1992- Peruvian constitution suspended from terrorism, drugs, and corruption in Peru 1993- A new constitution is adopted 1994- Six thousand guerrillas surrender to authorities 1995- Fighting erupts again along the border with Ecuador

10. 1997- El Niño causes severe drought in Peru 1999- Ecuador and Peru sign a treaty ending 6 decades of dispute over a section of the Amazon 2000- A 5,000 barrel oil spill by an Argentine company threatened the water resources of some 10,000 inhabitants in the northern jungle 2001- An earthquake of an 8.1 magnitude killed 102 people 2002- An Incan cemetery in Lima was found and it was reported to have over 2,000 mummies 2003- Peru replaced harsh anti-terrorism laws 2004- Peru inaugurated the construction of a $7 million bridge between many South American countries. The bridge would be about 2,500 miles long 2005- The presidents of Bolivia, Brazil and Peru inaugurated a $810 million highway project to connect Brazil's Atlantic coast to Peru's Pacific ports before the end of the decade 2006- Peru’s population hit about 27 million2007- A meteorite crashed in southern Peru and villagers were soon struck by a mysterious illness 2007- A 7.9 earthquake hits the Pisco Province 2007-Former President Alberto Fujimori was convicted of abuse of authority 2008- China and Peru signed a free trade agreement

11. 2008- Drug agents in Peru seized 3 tons of cocaine mixed into a shipment of guano bound for Spain 2009- The Peru – United States Trade Promotion Agreement was implemented 2009- Bolivia demanded that Peru hand over three former government ministers charged with genocide in 2003 for killing dozens of protesters 2010- The 2010 Nobel Prize in literature was awarded to Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa 2011- Peruvian President, Ollanta Humala, replaced more than half his Cabinet 2011 - Peru was said to have one of the world's fastest-growing economies 2011- The population reaches about 29.4 million 2012-Amagnitude-6.3 earthquake struck the country's central coast 2012- A pipeline carrying toxic compounds leaked spilling 45 tons of material into Peruvian towns; it spread a toxic dust that left 42 people hospitalized 2012- Peruvian President, Ollanta Humala, visits Japan and secures $250 million worth of loans for infrastructure projects Jan 2013- Peru's lead production was 19,837 metric tons Mar 2013- A4.3 magnitude earthquake hits Northern Peru Mar 2013- Peru tries to save and protect anchovy populations; overfishing increases fish prices

12. The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America • The best known portion of the road system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu • The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu is actually three routes, which all meet up near the 'Sun Gate' and entrance to Machu Picchu • Rafts were used to cross wide rivers; bridges built of stone or floating reeds were used in marshy highlands; Incan rope bridges provided access across narrow valleys • The prime users were imperial soldiers, porters and llama convoys • Permission was required before others could walk along the roads, and tolls were charged at some bridges • The Incas developed techniques to overcome the difficult territory of the Andes. On steep slopes they built stone steps resembling giant flights of stairs • Only 25% of this road network is still visible because of modern infrastructures built over it, plus Spaniards, post conquest, had dug up the road completely in some areas • Incas didn’t often travel by wheel and weren’t introduced to horse travel until the arrival of the Spanish in Peru in the 16th century, so the trails were used almost exclusively by people walking, sometimes accompanied by pack animals, usually the llama • The trails were used by the Inca people as a means of relaying messages, carried via knotted-cord quipu, books, and by memory; and for transporting goods. People could cover a couple hundred miles per day by using a relay system • The steep trails on Peru’s landforms made if difficult for the Spanish by horse to conquer the Incas

13. The biggest and only international airport is the Jorge Chavez International Airport in Lima • The Pan American Highway cuts straight through Peru from the Ecuadorian border to the Chilean one • The inter-city bus system is quite efficient and not very expensive. Well-known bus lines are Cruz del Sur and Ormeno, both of which also service neighboring countries • Rail transport in Peru is not so widely distributed, due to its mountainous geography  • El Metropolitano, the rapid transit bus system in Lima, is the easiest and most reliable form of public transportation.  • The Ferrocarril Central Andino railway runs inland from Callao and Lima across the Andes; it is the second highest railway in the world • Has 8,600 km of navigable waterways of the Amazon system and 208 km of Lake Titicaca • Has an 621 mi pipeline for the transport of petroleum • Fifty to ninety percent of the prices of agricultural goods produced in the interior and sold on the coast are accounted for by transportation and marketing costs • A Nazi graveyard in the Amazon suggests that Nazis used the Amazon river system for travel • Travel along the Amazon river has allowed the spread of different dialects of Spanish, diseases, plant and animal species that live near the river, folk stories, and traded goods

14. Prediction • Train usage will likely still be unpopular because the mountains in Peru make train travel difficult, and the mountains won’t change much over the next thirty years • The Amazon river will still play a major role in trade because of its extensive length • Air transportation will likely grow due to promotions and price reductions from competition • Regulations to control highway traffic will continue and be reinforced leading to safer roads with fewer accidents and robberies over time • BMI forecast that “oil production will more than double over the coming five years,” showing the movement of oil through underground pipelines will increase • The ancient Incan roads will continue to be used for tourism • Busing will remain popular because of its cheap pricing and easy accessibility

15. During Incas: • The Incas worshiped a pantheon of nature gods and goddesses. The most important were: Inti (the sun god), Viracocha (the creator), Illapa (the weather god), Pachamama (the earth goddess), Mamacocha (the sea goddess), and Mamaquilla (the moon goddess) • Sacrifices ranged from small amounts of food to humans • Corn was sacrificed everyday as a tribute to Inti • In order to salute the Sun God every morning, villages were built facing eastward • Gold was believed to be the Sun God’s tears and was used to celebrate him at festivals • The Incas and the Spaniards believed illness was sent by the gods as a form of divine punishment. The Spanish missionaries reinforced this belief that disease was a reminder that Christianity was the only true religion • They preached that conversion was the only chance for survival and salvation • Spanish priests suppressed Inca religion and achieved a massive conversion of Indian communities to Christianity. In 1567, the Spanish church set strict rules against the Incas’ beliefs, customs and ceremonies • They declared some of their beliefs as work of the devil • The Spaniards built Christian churches where sun temples once stood and melted down the artistic masterpieces of the Inca gold and silversmiths

16. The Constitution of Peru provides freedom for religion • Spain’s heavy Catholic population influenced religion in Peru • The population is about 82% Roman Catholic • The Peruvian government is closely allied with the Catholic Church • Article 50 of the Constitution recognizes the Catholic Church's role as "an important element in the historical, cultural, and moral development of the nation.” • Indigenous traditions and Catholic beliefs limit women’s access to birth control • Catholic Relief Services and other NGO organization have implemented women’s shelters and homes to provide health care, education, and safety • The Incan calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, and a five day feast at the end, before the new year began • Later, a major promoter of the Christian faith was Francisco Penzotti, who came to Peru in July 1888. Efforts on the part of Penzotti to make the Bible available to the masses also provided an entrance into Peru for the first time of protestant Bible societies and translators, stimulating a new era of religion and social change. • The institutional role of the church was established with conquest and the viceroyalty, but since independence it has slowly declined through losing its exclusive control over the domains of education, maintenance of vital statistics, marriages, and the organization of daily life around church rites.

17. Prediction • Protestantism will become more popular; it has been winning converts in Peru at a relatively rapid rate among the urban poor and certain Indian populations.  • Inca traditions will likely die out in urban areas. • Islam populations will likely stay the same because they have remained relatively static since 1980. • The control the Church has over things such as: education, marriages, etc. will decline.

18. Alberto Fujimori • Alberto Fujimori was born July 28, 1938 in Lima, Peru. • He is of Japanese decent. • He took schooling from the National Agrarian University in Lima,  University of Wisconsin, and the University of Strasbourg, France. • In 1989, as terrorism and hyperinflation plagued Peru, Fujimori began a bid for the presidency as the head of a new party, Cambio 90  • Fujimori instituted austerity measures including raising the price of gasoline by 3,000 percent. The policy—popularly known as “Fujishock”—wiped out inflation but caused immediate layoffs and hardships among the poor. • Fujimori staged an ”self-administered coup” with military support, declaring a state of emergency, dissolving Congress, and calling for a new constitution. • Fujimori’s political allies subsequently won a majority of legislative seats • In the mid-1990s, Fujimori’s wife publicly denounced him as corrupt and undemocratic and sought to run against him in the 1995 elections. However, Fujimoripassed a law prohibiting immediate relatives of the president from seeking the office. • He used his connections during the second election to infiltrate opposition political parties, bribe legislators and electoral officials, muzzle the media, embezzle and redirect government funds, and carry out human rights abuses, including illegal arrests and torture.  • Fujimori sought a controversial third term in 2000. • His government crumbled in late 2000 when a video was released that showed one of Fujimori’s close allies, Montesinos, bribing a congressman. People become calling Fujimori corrupt, so he left Peru and went to Japan. Here, he announced his resignation.

19. Alberto Fujimori • Peruvian officials investigated charges against Fujimori, but the Japanese government protected him. • In 2005, he traveled to Chile in hopes of contesting the 2006 presidential election—though he was prohibited from seeking office until 2011. Upon his arrival he was arrested at Peru’s request. • In December 2007, he was convicted for ordering an illegal search of the home of Montesinos’s wife in 2000 and was fined and sentenced to six years in prison for abuse of power. • In April 2009, following a 15-month trial, Fujimori was found guilty of ordering military death squads to carry out killings and kidnappings during his presidency, and he was sentenced to 25 years in prison. • A third conviction came in July 2009, when Peru’s Supreme Court found Fujimori guilty of channeling millions of dollars of state funds to Montesinos while he was president; Fujimori was then sentenced to seven and a half more years in prison. • In September 2009, in his fourth trial since he was extradited to Peru, Fujimori pleaded guilty to charges of illegal wiretapping and bribery, and he was sentenced to six additional years in prison.   • Press reports in late 2012 indicated that Fujimori was suffering from tongue cancer and other medical problems. • For all the bad things he has done, some of the helpful things he has done for Peru have been: wiping out inflation, ending terrorism in the country, prevention of rebel movements, increased the country’s GDP, brought many people out of poverty, built new schools, more roads and highways, and new and upgraded communications infrastructure, and increased exports.

20. Santa Rosa de Lima • Santa Rosa de Lima lived from April 20, 1586 – August 24, 1617 • She died at 31 • She was baptized under the name of Isabel, but at her confirmation in 1597, she took the name of Rose • Her intense devotion to God and Jesus led her to take a vow of virginity, fast three times a week, and prayer for hours a day. • Her role model was St. Catherine. • Saint Rose sold embroidery and raised vegetables during the day to help support her family through hardships. • Her nights were devoted to prayer and penance. • She entered the Third Order of St. Dominic at twenty • She constantly wore a metal spiked crown, concealed by roses, and an iron chain about her waist.  • Rose extended herself to the care of the Indians and slaves • She also spoke up about how the Spanish conquerors treated native peoples

21. Santa Rosa de Lima • She was declared patroness of South America and the Philippines by Pope Clement in 1671 • Saint Rose of Lima honors Peru because she was the first canonized saint in the Americas • Herfeast is celebrated August 23rd • Rumors suggest she had healed many diseases of sick people • During the last few years of her life, Rose set up a room in the house where she cared for homeless children, the elderly and the sick. This was a beginning of social services in Peru.   • Saint Rose of Lima was a major influence because over her internal and external beauty. She fed and healed the poor, homeless children, and foreigners. Her generosity was inspiration to others.

22. Ricardo Palma • Manuel Ricardo Palma Soriano was a Peruvian author, scholar, librarian and politician. • He was born in Lima on February 7, 1833 • He died in Miraflores on October 6, 1919 • He was educated at a Jesuit school and attended the University of San Carlos on an irregular basis. • He suspended his studies to perform voluntary service in the Peruvian navy for six years. • He held the positions of Consul of Peru in Pará, Brazil, senator for the Loreto, and official in the Ministry of War and Navy. • The War of the Pacific has destroyed the National library • After the war Palma was named director of the National Library • Palma successfully took on the task of rebuilding the National Library that was ransacked by the occupation forces of the Chilean army in 1881 following the battle of Lima during the War of the Pacific. • Palma was able to bring the National Library back from the ashes so that it regained its previous stature and became recognized once again as one of the top libraries in South America. • It was through his personal friendship with the then Chilean president, Domingo Santa María that Palma was able to recover an estimated 10,000 books

23. Ricardo Palma • His most famous work, Tradiciones peruanas, span several centuries, with an emphasis on earlier colonial and republican times in Peru. • The Tradiciones were published from 1872 to 1910 in a series of volumes • He is often referred to as the most significant figure of Romanticism in Peru, and one of the most gifted writers of the nineteenth century. • Tradiciones has helped historians understand Peruvian culture of his time. • He was one of the few people of his time who broke oral tradition of passing down stories, by writing in books. • He retired in 1912  • The January 19th, 1962 Ricardo Palma's last residence was declared a National Historic Monument. • After his death, people found numerous works of Voltaire, the famous European philosopher

24. Alejandro Toledo • He was born in Cabana, Peru, on March 28, 1946 • Toledo came to international prominence after leading the opposition against President Alberto Fujimori • Toledo completed the BA program in economics and business administration at USF. He later attended Stanford University, earning a master's in Economics and the Economics of Human Resources; then he earned a PhD in the Economics of Human Resources in 1993 at the Stanford University School of Education. • During his early political career, Toledo worked as a consultant for various international organizations, including the United Nations, the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the International Labor Organization, and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. • Toledo entered politics as an independent candidate for the in the 1995 election in which Alberto Fujimori was ultimately re-elected. • Despite his loss, the party he founded in 1994, Peru Posible, gained popularity and influence over the next few years. • Toledo declared his intent to run again in the 2000 election, but Fujimori was the elected for a third term.

25. Alejandro Toledo • During his campaign, Toledo promised Peruvians higher wages, a fight against poverty, anti-corruption measures, higher pensions, more employment, military reform, development of tourism, and industrialization. • On July 28, 2001, Toledo became the first South American President of indigenous descent to be democratically elected in five hundred years. • Toledo’s inability to fulfill what he promised during his campaign created widespread dissatisfaction. His approval ratings were consistently low throughout his presidency, sometimes sinking into single digits. • However, he did do some of the things he promised during his campaign. • The amount of paved roads increased by 20% during his presidency; medical attention to the poor doubled in rural areas, and public sector salaries increased (especially teachers), and over 100,000 new homes were built for poor Peruvians. • By 2004, Peru had a social safety net that included food programs serving 35 % of the population, and work programs offering temporary employment to unskilled workers.  • He tried to improve education; throughout his administration, enrollment rates in primary and secondary education remained high and private-school enrollment increased, but overall literacy and test scores improved only slightly.

26. Alejandro Toledo • Seguro Integral de Salud (SIS) was a program created by Toledo aimed to provide Peruvians without health insurance with improved access to heath care. By the end of his term, SIS covered more than 11 million Peruvians living on the outskirts of cities or in rural areas. • He improved the countries relationship with the: Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, US, etc. • During Toledo's five years as president, he brought inflation down to an average of 1.5%; between 2004 and 2006, employment grew at an average rate of 6%, and the percentage of people living in poverty fell. Much of this growth has been credited to the free trade agreements signed with the United States, China, Thailand, Chile, Mexico, and Singapore. • His presidency ended on July 28, 2006. • Toledo ran in the 2011 election but lost. • After his presidency, Toledo created the Global Center for Development and Democracy. The center works with low income individuals in developing countries with the goal of helping them become self-sufficient entrepreneurs, along with governments and other organizations to help combat institutionalized poverty • The UCSD's Institute of the Americas and the US Senate have honored President Toledo with an Award for Democracy and Peace for his efforts in promoting economic growth and strengthening democracy.

27. Juan Velasco Alvarado • He lived from June 16, 1910 – December 24, 1977 • He was born in Piura, Peru • Velasco entered the army in 1929, and rose to the rank of general. • As army commander in chief, he led in 1968,the junta that deposed President Belaunde Terry after his failure to expropriate U.S. owned oil operations. • Velasco appointed an all-military cabinet, and immediately seized the disputed oil fields. • He restricted the press, launched a sweeping agrarian reform aimed at expropriating farms and breaking up the country's large estates, and worked toward the nationalization of selected industries. • Velasco's rule was driven by a desire to give justice to the poor and became known as Peruanismo. • The education reform of 1972 provided for bilingual education of the indigenous people of the Andes and the Amazon. • He improved the countries relationship with Cuba • The Peruvian military government ran deeper into debt and was forced to devalue the currency and ran inflationary policies.

28. Juan Velasco Alvarado • He wanted to militarily reconquer the lands lost by Peru to Chile in the War of the Pacific. • He spent a couple Billion USD on guns and tanks to launch an attack on Chile • The Peruvian attack was supposed to be on October 5, 1975 • Alvarado then stated to the press the government never had any intentions of attacking Chile • During the mid 1970s, Velasco had become seriously ill; he had lost a leg to an embolism, and his cognitive abilities and personality were rumored to have been affected by related circulatory problems. • His failure to fix economic difficulties such as inflation, unemployment, food shortages, etc. led to the formation of a military coup on August 29th, 1975. • That night he called and meeting and read a speech saying he wouldn’t try to resist the coup. • The next day he resigned from office.

29. Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941: • After independence, Ecuador had been left without access to either the Amazon or the region's other major waterway, the Rio Maranon, and thus without direct access to the Atlantic Ocean. • The war started July of 1941; Ecuador’s forces had 1,800 soldiers, while Peru had 13,000 • In an effort to assert its territorial claims in a region near the Rio Maranon in the Amazon Basin, Ecuador occupied militarily the town of Zarumilla along its southwestern border with Peru. However, the Peruvian Army responded with a lightning victory against the Ecuadorian Army • The Peruvian army used tanks, artillery, military parachutes, and other weapons for the war. and air support. Their paratroop unit was used to seize the Ecuadorian port city of Puerto Bolivar on July 27, 1941. • This prompted the Ecuadorian President, Carlos Alberto Arroyo del Río to keep a sizable part of the Army in the capital, Quito. The rest of the army carried out guerrilla attacks upon the Peruvian troops. • Ecuador request a cease fire that went into action on July, 31 1941. • Later that month, Peru held Ecuador's southernmost province of El Oro and much of the disputed eastern jungle territory that had been part of Ecuador since the 1830s.

30. Ecuadorian–Peruvian War of 1941: • The Rio Protocol of February 1942 awarded to Peru some 205,000 square kilometers of previously disputed Amazon territory; this ended the war and troops begin to withdraw. • During the retreat, several attacks were made against the Peruvian military, and a series of lives were lost during the process. • Observers from the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile co-signed the treaty • About 78 km of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian border were left unmarked for the next fifty years, causing continuous diplomatic and military crisis between the two countries. • The importance of Peru gaining Amazon territory is because it allows for them to trade by the Amazon river system, and to gain access to plants, animals, minerals, etc. that are found in the rainforest. • The US got involved in the war hoping that they might get some access to the archipelago of Galapagos in return. • Discovery of the Cenepa river in 1947 is likely what triggered Ecuador to make the claim; this river-territorial dispute led to the Cenepa War in 1995. • During the 1960s, the Ecuadorian government alleged that the Protocol was invalid, because it had been signed under coercion. • Many suggest the Ecuadorian-Peruvian War of 1941 influences alliances during World War II

31. 1868 Arica earthquake • The 1868 Arica earthquake occurred on August 13, 1868, near Arica, then part of Peru, now part of Chile. • It had an estimated magnitude between 8.5 and 9.0. • The earthquake occurred along the boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate. • A total of 300 million dollars in damage, and killed as many as 70,000 people along the South American coast • Tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean was produced by the earthquake, which was recorded in Hawaii, Japan and New Zealand. • The earthquake caused the almost complete destruction of the cities: Arica, Tacna, Moquegua, Mollendo, Ilo, Iquique, Torata and Arequipa • The tsunami also caused the near complete destruction of the port city of Pisco. • It is reported that the earth opened up in various places, spewing out muddy water. • About 400 aftershocks were recorded • This earthquake, and the tsunami had a huge impact because it killed many people, used a lot of money for repairs and rebuilding, and took several years to repair all the damages. This also hurt trade because many port cities and boats were destroyed.

32. Peruvian War of Independence • Leading up to the war: • After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, Jose de San Martin created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. • Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipu in 1818. • On September 7th 1820, a fleet of eight warships landed in the port of Paracas under the command of general Jose de San Martin and Thomas Cochrane of the Chilean Navy. • Immediately on October 26, they took control of the town of Pisco. • San Martin settled in Huacho on November 12, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north blockading the port of Callao in Lima. • At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. • Argentinian General, San Martin, sent representatives to Lima urging Viceroy Pazuela that Peru be granted independence, however all negotiations proved unsuccessful. • The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquin de la Pazuela named Jose de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion of San Martin. • De la Serna was later named Viceroy of Peru. • In order to avoid a military confrontation, San Martin met the newly appointed viceroy, Jose de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy; the proposal was turned down.

33. Peruvian War of Independence • The war: • De la Serna abandoned the city, and on July 12th 1821 San Martin occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on July 28th 1821. • He created the first Peruvian flag. • Jose de San Martin was declared Protector of Peru. • Simon Bolivar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru giving him the power to organize the military. • However, Spain did not recognize Peru's independence, and conflicts continued. In 1824, Simon Bolivar and his lieutenant assembled an army at the Lake of Junin in the mountains. The Battle of Junin was quite monumental because about 500 Spanish soldiers were either killed or taken prisoner. This situation had a huge psychological impact on Spain and the royalists. • As a result of the Battle of Junin, approximately 3000 soldiers ended up defecting, deserting or becoming ill. • It was at the Battle of Ayacucho under command of General Antonio José de Sucre, that the patriots were truly victorious in ending Spanish rule.

34. Peruvian War of Independence • After the war: • This war led to the creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation • Peru's transition from colonial rule led to a period to instability • Between 1821 and 1845, and the constitution was rewritten six times • The large-scale importation of British textiles after independence virtually destroyed the production of native artisans • The expansion of exports during the 1840s did help, finally, to stabilize the Peruvian state • Spain made futile attempts to retain its former colonies, but stopped after death of King Ferdinand VII of Spain • In 1867 Spain signed a peace treaty with Peru and in 1879 it signed a treaty recognizing Peru's independence. • Even though the Spanish rule was over, their influence on Peru will always be seen, for example: the Spanish language, the Catholic religion, European diseases, horses, mining forces to find silver and gold, and other things that make Peru who they are all from Spain.

35. The Great Depression (+ World Wars) • World War I had a roller coaster effect on the Peruvian economy: • Export markets were temporarily cut off, provoking recession • Then, inflation raised the cost of living nearly double between 1913 and 1919. • This inflation had a particularly negative impact on the new working classes in Peru • The growth and concentration of workers made a push for a labor movement. • Violent strikes erupted on sugar plantations, beginning in 1910. • World War II + Depression impact: • Cotton and industrial metal (particularly lead and zinc) exports helped strengthen the economy during the Depression • Peru had Edwin Kemmerer, a well-known United States financial consultant, to recommend reforms. Following his advice, Peru returned to the gold standard, but could not avoid declaring a suspension on its US$180-million debt on April 1, 1931. For the next thirty years, Peru was barred from the United States capital market. • The Allied victory in World War II reinforced the relative democratic tendency in Peru • The military, under pressure from the oligarchy, overthrew the government and installed General Manuel A. Odria, hero of the 1941 war with Ecuador, as president.

36. War of the Pacific • The War of the Pacific began on the heels of an international economic recession that focused attention on resources in outlying zones. • Under an 1866 treaty, Chile and Bolivia divided the disputed area encompassing the Atacama Desert, in the understanding that the nationals of both nations could freely exploit mineral deposits in the region. • Both nations, however, would share equally all the revenue generated by mining activities in the region. • But Bolivia soon repudiated the treaty, and its subsequent levying of taxes on a Chilean company operating in the area led to an arms race between Chile and its northern neighbors of Bolivia and Peru. • Fighting broke out when Chilean entrepreneurs and mine-owners in present-day Tarapacá Region and Antofagasta Region, then belonging to Peru and Bolivia, respectively, resisted new taxes, the formation of monopoly companies, and other impositions.

37. War of the Pacific • In those provinces, most of the deposits of nitrate--a valuable ingredient in fertilizers and explosives--were owned and mined by Chileans and Europeans, in particular the British. Chile wanted not only to acquire the nitrate fields, but also to weaken Peru and Bolivia in order to strengthen its own strategic preeminence on the Pacific Coast. • War began when Chilean troops crossed the northern frontier in 1879. • A mutual defense pact had allied Peru and Bolivia since 1873; however, Chile's military overwhelmed the two weaker countries on land and sea. • Naval victories at Iquique (May 21, 1879) and Angamos (Oct. 8, 1879) enabled Chile to control the sea approaches to Peru. • A Chilean army then invaded Peru. • An attempt at mediation by the United States failed in October 1880, and Chilean forces occupied the Peruvian capital of Lima the following January. • Peruvian resistance continued for three more years, with U.S. encouragement. • Finally, on Oct. 20, 1883, Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancon.

38. War of the Pacific • As a result of the war and the Treaty of Ancon, Chile acquired two northern provinces--Tarapaca from Peru and Antofagasta from Bolivia. • These territories encompassed most of the Atacama Desert and blocked off Bolivia's outlet to the Pacific Ocean. • The war gave Chile control over nitrate exports, which would dominate the national economy until the 1920s. • The income of the Chilean treasury nearly quadrupled in the decade after the war. • The government used the funds to expand education and transportation. • The mining wealth generated demand for agricultural goods from the center and south and even for locally manufactured items, spawning a new plutocracy. • Even more notable was the emergence of a class-conscious, nationalistic, ideological labor movement in the northern mining camps and elsewhere. • Prosperity also attracted settlers from abroad.