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Data-Collection Methods

13. Data-Collection Methods. Learning Objectives. Recognize The Importance Of Questionnaires As A Data-Collection Method Enumerate The General Characteristics Of Questionnaires Construct Items For A Questionnaire

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Data-Collection Methods

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  1. 13 Data-Collection Methods

  2. Learning Objectives • Recognize The Importance Of Questionnaires As A Data-Collection Method • Enumerate The General Characteristics Of Questionnaires • Construct Items For A Questionnaire • List The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Questionnaires As A Data-Collection Method

  3. Learning Objectives Acknowledge The Importance Of Interviews As A Data-Collection Method Recognize The Necessity For Training Of Interviewers Before Data Collection Differentiate Among The Three Different Levels Of Structure That Can Be Used In Interviews List Guidelines To Be Used In The Three Phases Of An Interview

  4. Learning Objectives Recognize The Influence Of The Interviewer On The Subjects‚ äô Responses List The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Interviews As A Data-Collection Method Recognize The Importance Of Observation As A Data-Collection Method

  5. Learning Objectives Determine The Need For Physiological And Psychological Data-Collection Methods Compare And Contrast The Various Types Of Data-Collection Methods Critique The Data-Collection Methods Used in Research Studies Reported In The Literature

  6. Learning Objective OneRecognize The Importance Of Questionnaires As A Data-Collection Method

  7. Questionnaires • One of many data collection methods • Only method for certain human response data

  8. Learning Objective TwoEnumerate The General Characteristics Of Questionnaires

  9. Questionnaire • Paper-and-pencil format • Answers given in writing

  10. Questionnaire Development • Development of a reliable and valid questionnaire is difficult. • Many literature resources available for use in the construction

  11. Questionnaires Measure • Knowledge levels • Opinions • Attitudes • Beliefs • Ideas • Feelings • Perceptions

  12. Validity of Questionnaires • Rests on validity of the data obtained • Governed by the respondents’ willingness or ability to provide accurate information

  13. Learning Objective ThreeConstruct Items For A Questionnaire

  14. General Appearance of a Questionnaire • Neat and attractive • Minimal length • Grammatically correct • No typing or spelling errors • Clear margins and adequate spacing • High-quality printing and paper

  15. Questionnaire Guidelines • Written in the respondents’ preferred language • Contain appropriate knowledge and reading level • Avoid slang expressions, colloquialisms, and medical or nursing jargon

  16. Formulas to DetermineReading Level • The Flesch Reading Ease • The Fog Readability Formula • The Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level • SMOG (Simple Measure of Gobbledygook)

  17. Length of Questionnaires and Question Construction • Questionnaire length • Limit required completion time to 10 minutes or less • Not longer than two or three pages • Question construction • Keep questions as short as possible • Desirable length is fewer than 20 words. • Divide a long question into two questions

  18. Wording of Questions • State questions in an affirmative rather than a negative manner • Avoid • Ambiguous questions • Double negative questions • Double-barreled questions

  19. Categories of Questions • Demographic • Open- and closed-ended • Contingency • Filler

  20. Demographic Questions • Gather data on the characteristics of the sample • Characteristics of sample = demographic and attribute variables • Examples • Age • Educational background • Religious affiliation

  21. Closed-Ended Questions • Respondents are asked to choose from given alternatives. • Examples • True-or-false questions • Checklist type questions • Multiple-choice questions • Matching questions

  22. Open-Ended Questions • Respondents complete questions in their own words. • Examples • Essay questions • Fill-in-the-blank questions

  23. Contingency Questions • Are relevant for some respondents and not for others • Examples • Have you ever been hospitalized before? ______Yes/No. (If No, go on to question number 5) • How would you rate the care you received during your last hospitalization? ____ Poor ____ Fair ____ Good

  24. Filler Questions • Items in which the researcher has no direct interest • Included to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other questions

  25. Placement of Questions • Group all questions about a certain topic together • Put demographic questions at beginning or end

  26. A Cover Letter • Should be written clearly with simple instructions • Important factor for motivation • Accompanies all mailed questions

  27. A Cover Letter (cont’d) • Elements of a cover letter • Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring agency or person • Purpose of the research • How participant was selected • Reason the respondent should answer the questionnaire • Length of time to complete the questionnaire • How data will be used or made public

  28. A Cover Letter (cont’d) • Elements of a cover letter • Deadline for return of questionnaire • An offer to inform respondent of results of study • Researcher’s contact phone numbers, address, or both • Personal signature of the researcher

  29. Completion Instructions • Should be clear and concise • Provide examples of the appropriate way to respond to particular questions, if needed

  30. Distribution of Questionnaires • Made available at a convenient location • Through a mailing or distribution system • Through Internet.

  31. Factors EncouragingQuestionnaire Return Rate • Time of mailing • Hand-addressed outer envelopes • Personal signature of the researcher • Motivational information • An incentive for completion

  32. Factors EncouragingQuestionnaire Return Rate • Neatness and clarity of the instrument • Ease of completion • Time required to complete the instrument • Guarantee of anonymity • Inclusion of a preaddressed, stamped envelope

  33. Learning Objective FourList The Advantages And DisadvantagesOf Questionnaires As A Data-Collection Method

  34. Advantages of Questionnaires • Quick and generally inexpensive • Easy to test for reliability and validity • Administration is time efficient. • Can obtain data from widespread geographical areas • Anonymity can be guaranteed in cover letter.

  35. Disadvantages of Questionnaires • Costly to mail if there is a large volume • Potential low response rate • Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers or fail to answer.

  36. Disadvantages of Questionnaires (cont’d) • Respondents may not be representative of the population. • No opportunity to clarify items that may be misunderstood • Respondents must be literate. • Respondents must have no prohibitory physical handicap.

  37. Learning Objective Five Acknowledge The Importance Of Interviews As A Data-Collection Method

  38. Interview • Method of data collection • Interviewer obtains responses. • Face-to-face encounter, by telephone, or through an Internet connection

  39. Interview Purpose • Obtain factual data about people • Measure opinions, attitudes, and beliefs

  40. Interview Schedule • Contains a set of questions to be asked by an interviewer

  41. Recording Interview Data • Entered directly on the interview schedule • Recorded on a separate coding sheet • Recorded on audiotape • Recorded on videotape

  42. Learning Objective Six Recognize The Necessity For Training Of Interviewers Before Data Collection

  43. Interviewer Training • Responsibility of the study’s investigator • Should be rigorous • Should be carried out in groups

  44. Interviewer Training (cont’d) • Provide description of study, purpose, and methodology • Provide explanation of interview schedule, purpose of each question, meanings of all words, use of probes

  45. Learning Objective Seven Differentiate Among The Three Different Levels Of Structure That Can Be Used In Interviews

  46. Types of Interviews • Unstructured • Structured • Semistructured

  47. Unstructured Interviews • Interviewer directs the course of the interview. • Conducted like a normal conversation • Topics pursued at the discretion of the interviewer

  48. Unstructured Interviews (cont’d) • Used in exploratory or qualitative research studies • Interviewer may start with a broad opening statement. • Further questions and probes may be used.

  49. Unstructured Interviews (cont’d) • Give more freedom in question format • Produce more in-depth information • Conducted more like a normal conversation • Discuss topics at the discretion of the interviewer

  50. Structured Interviews • Use a structured set of questions • Ask same questions, in same order, in same manner • Very objective

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