A History of Chemical Engineering

1. A History of Chemical Engineering By : Muhammad Said, M.T.

2. What is a Chemical Engineer? a) An Engineer who manufactures chemicals b) A Chemist who works in a factory c) A glorified Plumber? CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

3. None of the above • No universally accepted definition of ChE. • However, aimed towards design of processes that change materials from one form to another more useful (and so more valuable) form, economically, safely and in an environmentally acceptable way. • Application of basic sciences (math, chemistry, physics & biology) and engineering principles to the development, design, operation & maintenance of processes to convert raw materials to useful products and improve the human environment. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

4. Chemistry Air Mathematics Natural Gas Coal Economics Minerals Energy Physics Biology Chemical Engineering • ChE involves specifying equipment, operating conditions, instrumentation and process control for all these changes. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

5. What are the fields of Ch E? The traditional fields of ChE are: • petrochemicals, petroleum and natural gas processing • plastics and polymers • pulp and paper • instrumentation and process control • energy conversion and utilisation • environmental control CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

6. What are the fields of Ch E? • Biotechnology • Biomedical and Biochemical • food processing • composite materials, corrosion and protective coatings • manufacture of microelectronic components • Pharmaceuticals CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

7. What do Chemical Engineers do? • Regarding Engineers: it is not what we do, but how we think about the world, that makes us different. We use all that we know to produce the best solution to a problem (problems that engineers face usually have more than one solution). • Engineers use techniques of Quantitative Engineering Analysis to design/synthesize products (materials, devices), services, and processes even though they have an imperfect understanding of chemical, physical, biological, or human factors affecting them. • Engineers operate under the constraint of producing a product or service that is timely, competitive, reliable, within the financial means of their company, and is consistent with its philosophy. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

8. What do Chemical Engineers do? Thus, they are involved in a wide range of activities such as: • design, development and operation of process plantsresearch and development of novel products and processesmanagement of technical operations and sales CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

9. Chemical engineer is either currently, or has previously, occupied the CEO position for: 3M Du Pont General Electric Union Carbide Texaco Dow Chemical Exxon BASF Gulf Oil B.F. Goodrich CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

10. Where do Chemical Engineers work? The majority of Chemical Engineers work in businesses known collectively as the Chemical Process Industries (CPI) • Chemicals, • Oil and Gas (upstream and downstream) • Pulp and Paper, • Rubber and Plastics, • Food and Beverage, • Textile, • Electronics/IT • Metals, mineral processing • Electronics and microelectronics • Agricultural Chemicals Industries • Cosmetics/ Pharmaceutical • Biotechnology/Biomedical • Environmental, technical, and business consulting CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

11. Where do Chemical Engineers work? • Many Chemical Engineers also work in supplier, consulting and governmental agencies related to the CPI by engaging in equipment manufacture, plant design, consulting, analytical services and standards development. • Chemical Engineers hold lead positions in industrial firms and governmental agencies concerned with environmental protection since environmental problems are usually complex and require a thorough knowledge of the Social Sciences, Physics, Biology, Mathematics and Chemistry for their resolution. • Chemical engineers have been referred to as “universal engineers.” CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

12. Chemical 23.3 26.7 Fuels 15.7 12.6 Electronics 15.9 15.6 Food/Consumer Prods. 10.6 11.4 Materials 3.1 3.3 Biotech & Related Inds. 9.3 6.9 Pulp & paper 2.1 2.4 Engineering Services (Design & Construction) 5.6 4.8 Engineering Services (Research & Testing) 1.8 2.4 Engineering Services (Environmental Engng.) 2.4 2.6 Business Services 5.8 6.4 Other Industries 3.9 4.8 Where do Chemical Engineers work?Initial placement of 2001/1999 graduates (USA) CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

13. How much money do Chemical Engineers make?Starting salaries (USA) The National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) reported that, between Sept 1999 - Jan 2000, the average starting salary offer made to graduating chemical engineering students in the USA was: • $49,418 with a Bachelor's degree • $56,100 with a Master's degree • $68,491 with a Ph.D. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

14. What is an Industrial Chemist? • Industrial Chemists are Applied Scientists. • Typically, they undertake optimization of complex processes, butunlike engineers, they examine and change the chemistry of the process itself. • Industrial Chemists are capable of fulfilling a multiplicity of roles - as research scientists, development chemists, technical representatives and as plant/company managers. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

15. Early Industrial Chemistry • As the Industrial Revolution (18th Century to the present) steamed along certain basic chemicals quickly became necessary to sustain growth. • Sulfuric acid was first among these "industrial chemicals". It was said that a nation's industrial might could be gauged solely by the vigor of its sulfuric acid industry • With this in mind, it comes as no surprise that English industrialists spent a lot of time, money, and effort in attempts to improve their processes for making sulfuric acid. A slight savings in production led to large profits because of the vast quantities of sulfuric acid consumed by industry. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

16. The German chemical industry experienced a period of rapid growth during the 19th Century. It was focused on the production of fine chemicals or complicated dyestuffs based on coal tar. These were usually made in batch reactors (something all chemists are familiar with). Hence, their approach to running a chemical plant was based on teaming research chemists and mechanical engineers. • However, the English and American chemical industries produced only a few simple but widely used chemicals such as sulfuric acid and alkali (both made in continuous reactors, something chemists have little experience with). These bulk chemicals were produced using straightforward chemistry, but required complex engineering on a large scale. The chemical reactors were no longer just big pots, instead they involved complex plumbing systems where chemistry and engineering were inseparably tied together. Because of this, the chemical and engineering aspects of production could not be easily divided; as they were in Germany. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

17. Economics drives industry and technological developments. • Sulfuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol) & "Fuming" Sulfuric Acid (Oleum) (H2SO4) • Required for the production of alkali salts (used in fertilizers) and dyestuffs CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

18. Lead Chamber Process • 1749 John Roebuck developed the process to make relatively concentrated (30-70%) sulfuric acid in lead lined chambers rather than the more expensive glass vessels. • air, water, sulfur dioxide, a nitrate (potassium, sodium, or calcium nitrate, and a large lead container. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

19. The nitrate was the most expensive ingredient because during the final stage of the process, it was lost to the atmosphere (in the form of nitric oxide). • Additional nitrate (sodium nitrate) was imported from Chile - costly! • In 1859, John Glover helped solve this problem with a mass transfer tower to recover some of this lost nitrate. Acid trickled down against upward flowing burner gases which absorbed some of the previously lost nitric oxide. When the gases were recycled back into the lead chamber the nitric oxide could be re-used. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

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21. Notice how sulfuric acid production closely mirrors historical events effecting the American economy. • Sulfuric acid production dropped after the American involvement in World War I (1917-1919) and open world trade resumed. • The stock market crash of 1929 further stagnated growth which was restored at the outbreak of • World War II (1938). As the U.S. entered the war (1941) economy was rapidly brought up to full production capacity. • The post war period (1940-1965) saw the greatest economic growth in America's history, and this was reflected in ever increasing sulfuric acid production. • Massive inflation during the late sixties and the energy crisis and economic recession of the early seventies also reveal themselves in the sulfuric acid curve CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry Figure 1-1, Source: "US Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics from Colonial Times to 1970."

22. Making soap – a luxury • It has been suggested that some form of soap, made by boiling fat with ashes, was being made in Babylon as early as 2800BC, but probably used only for washing garments. • Pliny the Elder (7BC–53AD) mentions that soap was being produced from tallow and beech ashes by the Phoenicians in 600BC. • Oils or fats are boiled with alkali in a reaction which produces soap and glycerin • Saponification is hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions, forming an alcohol and salt • Soap acts to reduce surface tension (surfactant) of water to make it “wetter” and emulsifiying dirt (holding it in suspension) CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

23. Historically, Na2CO3 was used CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

24. 1700’s the demand for soap increased due to washing of clothes, requiring Na2CO3 • The Alkali compounds, Soda ash (Na 2CO3) and potash (K2CO3), were used in making glass, soap, and textiles and were therefore in great demand. • This alkali was imported to France from Spanish and Irish peasants who burned seaweed and New England settlers who burned brush, both to recover the ash • At the end of the 1700's, English trees became scarce and the only native source of soda ash in the British Isles was kelp (seaweed). • Alkali imported from America in the form of wood ashes (potash), Spain in the form of barilla (a plant containing 25% alkali), or from soda mined in Egypt, were all very expensive due to high shipping costs. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

25. King Louis XVI of France offered an award (equivalent to half a million dollars) to anyone who could turn NaCl (common table salt) into Na2CO3 because French access to these raw materials was threatened. • Nicolas Leblanc was a poor young man working in a chemistry research lab established by the wealthiest man in France, the Duke of Orleans. • It took Leblanc 5 years to stumble upon the idea of reacting NaCl with sulfuric acid to form sodium sulfate, and then converting to sodium carbonate with limestone. • In 1789 he went to collect his prize…unfortunately this was during the time of the French Revolution. • A factory was built, but the Duke was executed and the factory seized. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

26. Alkali and the Le Blanc Process • Dependence on imported soda ended with the Le Blanc Process whichconverted common salt into soda ash using sulfuric acid, limestone and coal as feedstock (raw materials) and produced hydrochloric acid as a by-product. • 2 NaCl (salt) + H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) => Na2SO4 (saltcake, intermediate) + 2 HCl (hydrochloric acid gas, a horrible waste product) • Na2SO4 (saltcake) + Ca2CO3 (calcium carbonate, limestone) + 4 C(s) (coal) => Na2CO3 (soda ash extracted from black ash) + CaS (dirty calcium sulfide waste) + 4 CO (carbon monoxide) CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

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28. Alkali and the Le Blanc Process • In many ways, this process began the modern chemical industry. • From its adoption in 1810 it was continually improved over the next 80 years through elaborate engineering efforts mainly directed at recovering or reducing the terrible by-products of the process, namely: hydrochloric acid, nitrogen oxides, sulfur, manganese, and chlorine gas. • Indeed because of these polluting chemicals many manufacturing sites were surrounded by a ring of dead and dying grass and trees. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

29. Alkali and the Le Blanc Process A petition against the Le BlancProcess in 1839 complained that: "the gas from these manufactories is of such a deleterious nature as to blight everything within its influence, and is alike baneful to health and property. The herbage of the fields in their vicinity is scorched, the gardens neither yield fruit nor vegetables; many flourishing trees have lately become rotten naked sticks. Cattle and poultry droop and pine away. It tarnishes the furniture in our houses, and when we are exposed to it, which is of frequent occurrence, we are afflicted with coughs and pains in the head...all of which we attribute to the Alkali works." CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

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31. Soda Ash and the Solvay Process • In 1873 a new process - the Solvay Process - replaced Le Blanc's method for producing Alkali. • The process was perfected in 1863 by a Belgian chemist, Ernest Solvay. The chemistry was based upon an old discovery by A. J. Fresnel who in 1811 had shown that Sodium Bicarbonate could be precipitated from a salt solution containing ammonium bicarbonate. • This chemistry was far simpler than that devised by Le Blanc, however to be used on an industrial scale many engineering obstacles had to be overcome. Sixty years of attempted scale-up had failed until Solvay finally succeeded. Solvay's contribution was therefore one of chemical engineering. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

32. Solvay Process CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

33. Soda Ash and the Solvay Process • The heart of his design was an 80 foot tall high-efficiency carbonating tower in which ammoniated brine trickled down and carbon dioxide flowed up. Plates and bubble caps created a large surface area (contacting area) over which the two chemicals could react forming sodium bicarbonate. • Solvay's engineering resulted in a continuously operating process free of hazardous by-products and with an easily purified final product. • By 1880 it was evident that it would rapidly replace the traditional Le Blanc Process. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

34. Solvay's ammonia-soda process. B, brine cylinder; D, section through B; C, kettle which could be employed over fire instead of B; A carbonating tower. Dated 19th century CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

35. The dawn of Chemical Engineering • English industrialists spent a lot of time, money, and effort in attempts to improve their processes for making bulk chemicals because a slight savings in production led to large profits because of the vast quantities of sulfuric acid consumed by industry. • The term "chemical engineer" had been floating around technical circles throughout the 1880's, but there was no formal education for such a person. • The "chemical engineer" of these years was either a mechanical engineer who had gained some knowledge of chemical process equipment, a chemical plant foreman with a lifetime of experience but little education, or an applied chemist with knowledge of large scale industrial chemical reactions. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

36. The dawn of Chemical Engineering • In 1887 George Davis, an Alkali Inspector from the "Midland" region of England molded his knowledge into a series of 12 lectures on chemical engineering, which he presented at the Manchester Technical School. This chemical engineering course was organized around individual chemical operations, later to be called “unit operations”. Davis explored these operations empirically and presented operating practices employed by the British chemical industry. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

37. A new profession “Chemical Engineering” • For all intents and purposes the chemical engineering profession began in1888 when Professor Lewis Norton of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) initiated the first four year bachelor program in chemical engineering entitled "Course X" (ten). Soon other colleges, such as the University of Pennsylvania and Tulane University followed MIT's lead in 1892 and 1894 respectively. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

38. First US Chemical Engineering education • 1888, Lewis M. Norton at MIT, as part of Chemistry Department. • In response to rapid rise of the industrial chemical industries. • Based on descriptive industrial chemistry, of salt, potash, sulfuric acid, soap, coal. • Graduates lacked concepts and tools to solve new problems in the emerging petroleum and organic chemical industries. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

39. First Canadian Chemical Engineering education • 1878 Toronto (Analytical and Applied Chemistry) • 1902 Queen’s (Department of Chemical Engineering) • 1904 Toronto (Department of ChE and Applied Chemistry) • 1912 Ecole Polytechnique (from “Diploma d’ingenieur-chimiste” granted through Laval) • 1942 Ecole Polytechnique (Industrial Chemistry) • 1958 Ecole Polytechnique (Department of chemical Engineering) • 1914 McGill • 1915 UBC • 1926 Alberta • 1934 Saskatchewan • 1940 Laval • (Nova Scotia Technical College 1947) CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

40. A new profession “Chemical Engineering” • From its beginning chemical engineering was tailored to fulfill theneeds of the chemical industry which, in the USA, was mostly based on petroleum derived feedstocks. Competitionbetween manufacturers was brutal, and all strove to be the "low cost producer." However, to stay ahead of the pack chemical plants had to be optimized. This necessitated things such as; continuously operating reactors (as opposed to batch operation), recycling and recoveryof unreacted reactants, and cost effective purification of products. These advances in-turn required plumbing systems (for which traditional chemists where unprepared) and detailed physical chemistry knowledge (unbeknownst to mechanical engineers). The new chemical engineers were capable of designing and operating the increasingly complex chemical operations which were rapidly emerging. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

41. Unit operations • In transforming matter from inexpensive raw materials to highly desired products, chemical engineers became very familiar with the physical and chemical operations necessary in this metamorphosis. • Examples of this include: • filtration • drying • distillation • crystallization • grinding • sedimentation • combustion • catalysis • heat exchange • coating, and so on. Physical Chemical operations CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

42. Unit Operations • These "unit operations" repeatedly found their way into industrial practice, and became a convenient manner of organizing chemical engineering knowledge. • Additionally, the knowledge gained concerning a "unit operation" governing one set of materials can easily be applied to others • driving a car is driving a car no matter what the make. • So, whether one is distilling alcohol for hard liquor or petroleum for gasoline, the underlying principles are the same! CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

43. Unit operations • The "unit operations" concept had been latent in the chemical engineering profession ever since George Davis had organized his original 12 lectures around the topic. • But, it was Arthur Little who first recognized the potential of using “Unit Operations" to separate chemical engineering from other professions • While mechanical engineers focused on machinery, and industrial chemists concerned themselves with products, and applied chemists studied individual reactions, no one, before chemical engineers, had concentrated upon the underlying processes common to all chemical products, reactions, and machinery. The chemical engineer, utilizing the conceptual tool that was unit operations, could now make claim to industrial territory by showing his or her uniqueness and worth to the American chemical manufacturer. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

44. Paradigm: a pattern or model Paradigmis a constellation that defines a profession and an intellectual discipline • Firm theoretical foundations, triumphant applications to solve important problems • Universities agree on core subjects taught to all students, standard textbooks and handbooks, accreditation of degrees • Professional societies and journals • Organize research directions - what is a good research problem, and what are legitimate methods of solution? CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

45. Chemical engineering paradigms Pre-paradigm - engineers with no formal education 1. The first paradigm - Unit Operations, 1923 2. The second paradigm - Transport Phenomena, 1960 3. The third paradigm - ? CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

46. Pre-paradigm • Fire (300,000 BC) as the first chemical technology • Led to pyro-technologies: cooking, pottery, metallurgy, glass, reaction engineering • Chemical technology as empirical art, with no reliable scientific foundation or formally educated engineers. • Ecole des Ponts et Chausee, 1736, first modern engineering school. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

47. The first paradigm • Arthur D. Little, industrialist and chair of visiting committee of chemical engineering at MIT, wrote report in 1908 “Unit Operations should be the foundation of chemical engineering” • First textbook Walker-Lewis-McAdams “Principles of Chemical Engineering” 1923 CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

48. The first paradigm: early success • Became • core of chemical engineering curriculum, unit operations, stoichiometry, thermodynamics • principle to organize useful knowledge • inspiration for research to fill in the gaps in knowledge • Effective in problem solving • graduates have a toolbox to solve processing problems in oil distillation, petrochemical, new polymers CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

49. The first paradigm: later stagnation • World War II creation of new technologies by scientists without engineering education: atomic bomb, radar. • Engineering students needed to master new concepts and tools in chemistry and physics. • Unit Operations no longer created streams of exciting new research problems that were challenging to professors and students, and useful in industry. CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry

50. The second paradigm • First textbook “Transport Phenomena” by Bird-Stewart-Lightfoot, 1960, based on kinetic theory of gases CHEE 2404:Industrial Chemistry