Review of the Start of Western Philosophy: Metaphysics and Explanatory Science

1. Review • Start of Western philosophy = metaphysics • Explanatory science—Thales “all is water” • Explanation by • a) many explained by one • b) change explained by something permanent • Knowing is knowing the permanent, one . . . • Assumptions shared by Indian thought • Many other candidates proposed for the “one”

2. Heraclitus • Same assumption—nothing is real • Everything is changing • Famous river example • Grammatical root (countable nouns v mass nouns) • One permanent while the other changes • Everything is “becoming” – each thing is a contradictory mix of being and not-being • Only the law (logos) of change is unchanging • The only thing knowable (rest is mere belief)

3. Parmenides: Being • Exact opposite: nothing changes • Primacy of reason over experience • Experience an illusion/dream • What is is; what is not is not • Truths of reason (tautologies/analytic truths) • Proof: Subject Term must refer • Or the sentence is necessarily false (?) • Santa Claus is married • We cannot speak of “what is not” without contradiction

4. Questions Tutorials after CNY Syllabus Correction Quiz on argument.

5. Second Element • Focus on concept of “being” (is) • ‘Being’ tied to the Indo-European verb--to be (copula) • Two uses in Indo-European languages • Predicative and existential • Predicative: make a sentence or assertion • Links adjective/noun to a subject • Not needed in Chinese 她很漂亮 • To describe a thing is to say what "is" of it • What its being or existence includes.

6. Existential • “X is” = X exists = there is (有) X • Blending the two uses leads to the view that all change is impossible—why(?) • To describe a change entails that it is what it was not before • This is to change “is not” to “is” • Parmenides construes change as non-being becomes being • That is impossible • Hence change is impossible

7. Classical Chinese Case • Literary Chinese has no “is” copula • “Exists” expressed with 有無 • Also no required subject term • Doesn’t have a puzzle about how being can change • This “Perennial” problem turns out to be a problem of only one philosophical culture • A problem rooted in the language or grammar

8. Guo Xiang: Like Parmenides • 無 cannot become 有 and 有 cannot become 無 • Although it changes constantly, it never ceases to exist • So accepts that reality is in constant change—no problem • Can deny movement from non-being to being without denying all change 化

9. Other Western examples: Zeno • Arrow paradox: infinite number of points • Same conclusion. No change • Additions to Rationalist Dichotomies • Reason v. experience • Real v. apparent

10. One Permanent Knowable Rational Reality Many Changing Believed Experienced Mere-appearance Classical Greek Rationalism • Framework of appearance v. reality

11. Other sources of Rationalism: • Pythagoras: Geometry and Pythagorean theorem • Religion of worship of math objects: points, lines etc • Euclid: (After Plato) axiom-theorem structure. How to think • A powerful conception of the organization of knowledge • And about the world—real shape of things

12. Socrates • Dissatisfaction with the naturalists • Powerful techniques but unimportant questions • The examined life • focusing on the Indo-European concept of "soul" • Seat of reason, consciousness, and intellect • Morality and right • Soul's health the most important thing

13. Brought method to attention. • Method is proof; target is definitions • A definition of 'justice' or other virtues • Understand what it is • Conclusions conform to rationalist dichotomies • Socratic Method • Doubt—but much more • Rationally motivated doubt

14. Logic • Socratic method requires a look • Logic as disciplined discourse • 'Argument': proof v quarrel sense • Proof consists of sentences • Premises and conclusion • Conversational implication • Conclusion “follows from” the premises • Needs explanation

15. Good and bad arguments proofs) • Valid: has a form such that if the premises were true, the conclusion would be true also • Formal or symbolic representation a consequence • Venn diagram technique • Classic example: all C are B, all B are A, all C are A A B C

16. Validity • A matter of form • Like grammar: need form to express a thought • Argument form such that if premises (in that form) were true, the conclusion (in that form) would also be true

17. Called Formal Or Symbolic Logic • Modus Ponens: if P then Q; P; hence Q • Modus Tolens: if P then Q; not Q; hence not P • Disjunctive syllogism: either P or Q; not P; hence Q • Famous invalid form • Affirming the consequent: if P then Q; Q; hence P

18. Study Of Validity • Symbolic/formal logic • If … then. .., All, some, none, either. . . or . . . • Study formal structures

19. How to Prove Invalidity • Use the same form • With plainly true premises • And a false conclusion • Can not be a valid form • Distinguish from argument by analogy • Form of induction on a similarity • How do I know you have minds?

20. Soundness • Definition • Valid argument • True premises (all) • Conclusion of two definitions • Sound arguments have true conclusions • What if conclusion of valid form is false • Opposite of “all” is “one or some” • At least one premise is false

21. Other Logics • Deductive v inductive • Guarantee by form v good reason for conclusion • Could still be wrong • Weakest to strongest • Analogy (weak form) one likeness • Classical induction: next one might change • Sampling, polling and statistics (with rigor) • Science (strong form) explain later • Inference to the best explanation

22. Moral Or Practical Reasoning • Uses the same model: called the practical syllogism • Belief-desire explanation of action in western thought • To get a value (ought) conclusion, you need a value premise • You can't get an "ought" from an "is" • Abortion argument example

23. Crucial Move: • If conclusion false, then either invalid or premise false • Key to scientific induction (v. Classical induction) • Laws and experimental setup predict a result • If prediction is false, one of the premises must be false • Usually the setup, but after repeated checking calls one of the laws into question

24. Socratic Contradiction • Socratic method no experiment • Use argument to derive a contradiction • Must change a premise. Not necessarily the definition • Limits of Socratic (scientific) method: only exposes error not truth • Trial and error, creativity, insight, genius for premises

25. Example: The Problem of Evil • God is omnipotent, omniscient and all good creator of everything • Hence, there is no evil • Formal statement: ABCD. All good • "All things there are” • "things God made" • "things God wanted" • "good things“

26. Theodicity • What is the alternative to no-evil? • God does not exist? Why does it not prove that? • Theodicity: possible solutions to the problem of evil • Limited god • Free will and necessary evil • Human and divine “good”

27. Back to Socrates: Virtue • Applies metaphysical analysis to ethics, truths are moral facts. • one (conventions many) • unchanging (vs. mores) • knowable (definitions) • rational (Socratic method) and • real. • Why care about those peculiar facts? • No man knowingly does evil

28. Weakness of Socratic Method • No answers—Socrates the skeptic • Dies ignorant • Famous lament—and student response • At least knows he doesn’t know • 知之為知之不知為不知是知也 • Deeper problem—many different consistent doctrines • Contradiction not easy to prove • Plato cheats!

29. Socrates and Plato Story • Death by legislature—bill of attainder • Plato’s hatred of democracy • Better for policy and choice of leaders • Not for judgment of guilt • Takes Socrates as a figure in dialogues • Source of our account of Socratic method • Classic example in Thrasymachus dialogue

30. Plato's Synthesis: • Parmenides: the real world and ethical ideal blend • Focus on search for definitions • Socrates origin or geometry • Result is that meaning/value = being • Really that being = meaning/value

31. Definitions: • Conform to rationalist presuppositions • One -- instances are many • Unchanging -- remain while that kind of thing • Knowable -- beliefs about objects (Heraclitus and Parmenides) • Rational -- Socratic method • Hence real • Idealism. Definitions (meanings:ideas) are real • "Things" are not

32. Rules for Definitions • Implicit in Plato's dialogues with Socrates • No lists. What is common to all instances • No vagueness. Strong • No circularity (or mere synonyms) • Definition so usable in arguments • No hearsay -- test by expert knowledge • Real v. Nominal definitions • Test by reason. Socratic method

33. Conclusion: The Forms • Intellectual forms correspond to definitions (meanings) • Forms provide a unified answer to questions in all fields of philosophy • Metaphysics: what is real. Real definitions v. Nominal • Epistemology: what is knowable. Like soul/mind--intellectual • Logic: the thinkable objects (not laws of thought but semantics) • Ethics: no man knowingly does evil. Health of the soul • Objects of striving -- teleological account of change