Review for EUH4665

1. Review for EUH4665 From World Wars to Irish troubles.

2. What forms did political violence and terrorism assume inside Europe during the last major conflict of the 20th century? Political Violence and terrorism during WWII and beyond

3. Impact of War on Europe: Political violence and terrorism during the war: (1) Assault against civilian populations by means of military action (bombings, etc.) From Guernica to Dresden: “Terror bombing” used against undefended cities. Revenge weapons: V1-V2 rockets/missiles…

4. Political violence, cont. • (2) Ethnic cleansing, e.g., targeting of so-called “undesirable” types (Roma, Jews, Serbs) who were to be ghettoized or wholly eliminated from the general population. • Genocide of Jews and others in Polish camps between 1941 and 1944.

5. Ethnic-cleansing • Ustase in former Yugoslavia: A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated February 17, 1942, stated that: • “Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.”

6. Forms of political violence and terrors during WWII, 1939-1945 • (3) Repression (surveillance, etc.) and Reprisals carried out against civilian populations (e.g., “Nacht und Nebeldecree issued on” 7 December, 1941: “The Führer is of the opinion that in such cases penal servitude or even a hard labor sentence for life will be regarded as a sign of weakness. An effective and lasting deterrent can be achieved only by the death penalty or by taking measures which will leave the family and the population uncertain as to the fate of the offender. Deportation to Germany serves this purpose.").

7. Deaths of civilians due to “terror” bombings… • Throughout the war, civilian targets were not considered out of bounds by both sides. In fact, fire-bombing of cities – Hamburg, for example – were conducted in order to destroy the morale of the enemy population.

8. Political violence, cont. • War of all against all saw the use of violence first throughout occupied Europe and then in liberated lands. • Reprisals against former enemies and collaborators were common in various parts of Europe, but especially in France, Italy, and countries in East/Central Europe and the Balkans.

9. Post-War Retribution, cont. • In Hungary, for example, some 300,000 people (3 per cent of the population) suffered some kind of punishment during the immediate post-war purges. • An even more violent legacy of the SWW could be found in the post-war conflicts in Greece. A bitter struggle between communists and their allies on the one side and pro-monarchists or royalists on the other, led to years of intermittent civil war (1944-1949).

10. Greek Civil War: Cost of War • Between 1946 and 1949, it is estimated that more than 50,000 combatants died in the conflict (approximately 12,000 Greek army deaths, and 38,000 communists), and more than 500,000 Greeks were temporarily displaced from their homes by the fighting. • An estimated 4.124 civilians and 165 priests had been executed by the communists. Deaths from land mines were said to be 931.

11. The re-emergence of state terrorism? • Stalinization of East/Central European countries between 1945 and 1953 briefly resurrected the spectre of “state terrorism.” • According to Tony Judt (Postwar ), “[T]he scale of the punishment meted out to the citizens of the USSR and Eastern Europe in the decade following World War Two was monumental…”

12. Return of state terrorism? • At the height of the “second” Stalinist terror (1952), 1.7 million prisoners were being held in forced labor camps (gulags), 800,000 in labor colonies, and 2,753,000 in “special settlements”. (p.191) • Czechoslovakia – in this same period there were some 100,000 political prisoners.

13. Return, cont. • In Hungary between 1948-1953 about one million people (out of total population of less than 10 million) fell victim to Stalinist repression (arrested, prosecuted, imprisoned, or deported.)

14. Stalinist “terror”, 1949-1953 • Once the communists were in control of the government, a systematic effort was made to transform Hungary into a communist society (e.g., forced collectivization) and purging of non-communists from politics and cultural institutions.

15. Hungary, cont. • Even seemingly “loyal” communists were purged in the thousands between 1949 and 1952. • Motives behind “purges” that take place during 1949: (1) Infighting within the Communist party leadership intensifies in the wake of the founding of the Cominform. (2) MátyásRákosi,, Ernő Gerő,JózsefRévai ( 1898-1959) and other key communist leaders want to consolidate their control over the direction of the HWP and government by eliminating potential rivals.

16. Western forms of “state terrorism”, 1945- • State-directed terrorist methods -- used primarily to achieve communist hegemonic control over the cultural, economic and political spheres of society -- were not confined to the communist bloc.

17. State terrorism in the West? • In Franco’s Spain (1939-1975) -- After the civil war, war thousands of republicans were executed. Tens of thousands fled Spain.

18. State terrorism, cont. • State control of politics was extended (with the assistance of the Catholic Church) to the cultural and economic spheres. In the former, Francoist policies specifically identified ethno-nationalism/separatism as a threat to the unity of the Spanish state. • Over time, Franco modified the repressive features of his regime. This was especially evident after 1959.

19. State terrorism in the West, cont. • Other examples of state repression/terrorism in the post-SWW era: French response to Algerian independence movements, 1951- ; Greece, 1967-1974; British response to Irish “troubles” of 1970s.

20. Impact of State terrorism? • In communist countries the legacy of state-sponsored terrorism was to stifle dissent and bring about social conformity that was rarely breached during the Cold War years, 1952-1989. • In the west, the impact of state terrorism is difficult to quantify. The role democratization played in mitigating state terrorism is also difficult to assess.

21. Legacy, cont. • Yet there can be little doubt that state repression and use of terrorist methods (torture, subversion, etc.) – in both authoritarian and democratic states -- engendered a radicalism among groups which were “officially” regarded as terrorist.

22. State terrorism and its impact on Ethno- and revolutionary terrorism in Europe, 1945- Questions to consider: • What were the forms of state violence and repression? • How did the repressive practices of these systems engender the radicalization of ethno-nationalist and other forms of protest movements? • How and why was the emergence of a new wave of terrorism following the 1968 protest movements linked to the cultural context of the period?

23. France and its colonial world

24. Flash-point for ethno-nationalist violence pre-1968 Algeria, 1954-1962 • This struggle was bound up with the globally-based anti-colonial movements of the post-war era.

25. Violence and Colonial rule • Franz Fanon: “The naked truth of decolonization evokes for us the searing bullets and bloodstained knives which emanate from it. For if the last shall be first, this will only come to pass after a murderous and decisive struggle between the two protagonists....”

26. Post-SWW and French Colonialism • The French colonial empire began to fall apart during the Second World War, when various parts of their empire were occupied by foreign powers (Japan in Indochina, Britain in Syria, Lebanon, and Madagascar, the US and Britain in Morocco and Algeria, and Germany and Italy in Tunisia). However, control was gradually reestablished by Charles de Gaulle. The French Union, included in the 1946 Constitution, replaced the former colonial Empire.

27. Violence and Colonialism • In the years immediately following the SWW, France was confronted with the beginnings of the decolonization movement. For example, in Paul Ramadier’s (SFIO) cabinet brutally repressed the Malagasy Uprising in 1947, Madagascar. • In Cameroun, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon's insurrection, started in 1955 and headed by Ruben Um Nyobé, was violently repressed.

28. Post-SWW Colonial Violence • 1945 – In Indochina, Ho Chi Minh's Vietminh declared Vietnam's independence, starting the Franco-Vietnamese War, Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). • When this ended with French defeat and withdrawal from Vietnam in 1954, the French almost immediately became involved in a new, and even harsher conflict in their oldest major colony, Algeria.

29. France’s post-SWW empire • The Algerian War started in 1954. Algeria was particularly problematic for the French, due to the large number of European settlers (or pieds-noirs) who had settled there in the 125 years of French rule. Charles de Gaulle's accession to power in 1958 in the middle of the crisis ultimately led to independence for Algeria with the 1962 Evian Accords.

30. British Colonialism: The case of Ireland • Britain’s longstanding ties to Ireland – independent since 1922 – were also tested during this period. • In 1949– Ireland decided to leave the commonwealth by declaring herself an independent republic. From then on, the Irish question would entail the status of the six counties in the north.

31. Irish Question, 1949-1972 • Ireland, 1949 (Ireland independent Republic); 1921-1972 Northern Ireland -- northeastern counties of Londonderry, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Antrim, Down and Armagh -- governed by Unionists/Protestants (Stormont)

32. Violence and Irish nationalism • The division of Ireland into two distinct communities – Catholic and Protestant – came to a head during the 19th century. The Protestants in the north were pro-British (Unionists) and regarded themselves as being socially, economically, and culturally superior to the native Irish people. • The Catholic majority in the south saw themselves as being distinct from the British and therefore dedicated themselves to the idea of achieving national independence.

33. Irish Historical background • Over a number of issues, including the idea of Home Rule, the gulf separating the two communities continued to widen. • Much of the opposition between the two sides centered on religious differences. The Protestants feared “Rome rule”, while the Irish Catholics resented the discrimination shown to Catholics living in the Protestant North.

34. Irish Background, cont. • Home Rule issue continued to simmer until the period of the First World War, 1914-1918, when the question of Irish independence assumed greater proportions. • IRA (Irish Republican Army, Irish Republican, Brotherhood ) stepped up their violent campaign to achieve independence for Ireland.

35. Irish background • 1916 (Easter Rising in Dublin) • Anglo-Irish War (Irish War of Independence), 1919-1921 (Irish Republic est. 1919) • Brutal repression of this movement led to more militancy and the revival of an Irish political faction devoted to independence, Sinn Fein (ourselves alone).

36. Irish independence • Michael Collins (1890-1922) and Éamon de Valera (1882-1975) led the nationalist movement for independence. • The British government refused to accept this struggle as a “war of national liberation.” Therefore the IRA was not accorded the status of a legitimate military force.

37. Irish independence, cont. • 1920-1922 – IRA unable to defeat the British, but the British were unable to suppress the pro-nationalist forces. • Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 is ratified by Irish Republic, creating the independent nation of Ireland in the south and Northern Ireland (predominantly Protestant) in the North.

38. Irish Civil War, 1922-1923 • Michael Collins led the group of pro-treaty IRA against those who opposed it. The civil war that followed pitted former allies (Irish nationalists) against one another. • The conflict revolved around the issue as to whether the Irish Free State would remain independent but tied to the British crown (Dominion). The republicans, led by Éamon de Valera, were fiercely opposed to the idea.

39. Irish Nationalism • Violent tactics were associated with the revolutionary nationalist strand. The Fenians in particular were regarded by the British authorities as a violent prone or terrorist organization.

40. Irish nationalism, cont. • The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) became the main force for separatism at the beginning of the 20th century. Allied to this movement was the semi-legal Sinn Fein (“Ourselves alone”). Both groups opposed the reformist path taken by the (Irish) Nationalist Party.

41. Role of Violence in Irish independence movement • Cycle of violence firmly established during independence struggle after 1916: provocation, retaliation, and counter-revenge. • State vs. group-inspired terrorism:- • “A war of conquest, such as England’s war against Ireland, develops, inevitably, into a campaign of terrorism against the people.” (R. English, Armed Struggle, p. 17.) • Examples: “Bloody Sunday” 21 November 1921. IRA struck at British agents in Dublin, killing over a dozen people. Later that day the Auxiliaries (British) killed twelve in retaliation.

42. Violence, cont. • Further bloody excesses were committed by the Black and Tans, ex-servicemen who had been recruited to reinforce the police in Ireland. • This pattern of violence/terrorism would persist throughout the initial independence struggle (ending in 1921-22) and beyond the establishment of an independent Ireland.

43. Ideological/Cultural features of IrA • Religion: Catholic religion was one way of distinguishing Irish “freedom fighters” from the predominantly Protestant British. • Gaelic language: English was seen as the language of the colonizing British. However, English was not fully abandoned by the IRA and their followers. • From a political standpoint the IRA promoted the idea of an Irish Republic, though what form this would take was never clearly articulated. • E.g., The creation of the Dail or DáilÉireann (established in 1919 ) was meant to challenge the legitimacy of British rule from London.

44. Ideo. Cont. • Another ideological strand of the IRA was that of socialism. • James Connolly (1868-1916) was the leading representative of this current. According to Connolly and his republican socialist followers, the IRA should define its republicanism in Marxian terms. The struggle for independence thus involved: (1) a struggle between the oppressed nation of Ireland with its oppressor (Great Britain), and (2) a clash with capitalism and its middle-class supporters. • In this sense, the socialist members of the IRA were at odds with other pro-independence groups. The FiannaFáilwas regarded by the socialist wing as being pro-capitalist land therefore not capable of creating the basis for a united Ireland.

45. Beginning of “Troubles” • 1963 – P.M. Terence O’Neill pro-civil rights policies are aimed at normalizing relations between N. Ireland’s Protestant and Catholic communities. • 1966 – Protestants -- Ian Paisley, for example -- opposed to bridging the chasm between the two religious sectors challenge O’Neill’s reform efforts. • 1967 IRA – ends its military campaign in Northern Ireland. • 1968 – Civil Rights marches on behalf of Catholic minority in Northern Ireland.

46. Troubles, cont. • 1969 – “Battle of the Bogside”. Breakdown of law and order in major N. Ireland cities leads to intervention of British troops. IRA splits into official and provisional (provos) wings. • 1971 – PIRA campaign intensifies. By the end of the year 174 had been killed and 2,375 people injured. Some 15,000 British troops were stationed in the Province.

47. Troubles, cont. • 1972 – “Bloody Sunday” / “Bogside Massacre”; some 14 Catholic protestors demonstrating for civil rights are killed by British troops. • From this point on, the N. Ireland Catholic community opposes British presence in the north. • IRA locked in a violent conflict with the British army and Protestant paramilitary groups like the RUC and UVF.

48. Bogside Massacre, epilogue 2010 • Widgery Tribunal (est. shortly after the incident) claimed that the shooting of protestors was necessary to contain an unruly crowd. • A second government commission (established in 1998) – Saville report -- investigating the outbreak of violence which resulted in “Bloody Sunday” found that the soldiers’ actions were “unjustified and unjustifiable.”

49. “Troubles,” cont. • 1969-1974 – Attempting to contain the violence associated with the “Troubles.” By 1972 some 20,ooo troops were stationed in N. Ireland as part of the British government’s counter-insurgency strategy. • 1971-1974 -- Internment methods used by British military provokes further violence from the PIRA and alienates both the Protestant and Catholic communities.

50. IRA ideology after 1972 • Nationalism – uncompromising stance on the unity of Ireland. • Religion – pro-Catholic; did not identify the political aims of their movement with Catholicism. Conservative stance on issues like birth control and the role of the nuclear family. • Socialism – Anti-imperialist; opposed to economic exploitation but not necessarily Marxist. For some, the goal of the movement was to create a socialist republic. • Committed to the path of violent action (“war of attrition”) and the use of force rather than to the politics of reform and peaceful method.