Chapter 11 Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

1. Chapter 11 Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

2. France • France’s culture and cuisine have been shaped by the numerous invaders who have passed through over the centuries. • Perhaps the event that most profoundly influenced French cuisine was the 1533 AD marriage of Henri II to the Italian Caterina de’Medici. • The Industrial Revolution broke down regional barriers throughout France and allowed product shipments nationwide. • Haute cuisine eventually became “cuisine classique” and later “nouvelle cuisine” as chefs in the late twentieth century embraced lighter dishes and simpler flavors. • Each of France’s regions has a unique gastronomic identity, characterized largely by its geography. 11.1 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

3. Italy • In 415 BCE, Greek invaders introduced olives, honey, and nuts to southern Italy where they remain prominent ingredients today • The Roman Empire, which fanned out from contemporary Italy, introduced new foods, techniques, and ideas from the regions its soldiers had conquered. • The “Columbian Exchange,” named for explorer Christopher Columbus, brought many new foods to Europe, which rapidly found homes in Italian cuisines. • Modern Italy did not become a unified country until 1861, so regional culinary traditions generally persist today. 11.1 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

4. Spain • Spain is bordered on several sides by water, allowing easy trade with both nearby neighbors and distant lands. • Spain’s history, however, is also one of occupation. Spain was at one time a Roman province; occupied by Visigoths, a Germanic people; and controlled by Arabs. Arabian influence on Spanish cuisines persists today. • Spain’s geography covers a wide variety of terrains, so naturally its regional cuisines vary considerably—the northern regions are notable for seafood cookery, the northern interior is famous for agriculture, and the southeast coast is famous for citrus, saffron, and rice production. 11.1 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

5. Section 11.1 Summary • France’s culture and cuisine have been shaped by the numerous invaders, peaceful and otherwise, who have passed through over the centuries. Perhaps the event that most profoundly affected the development of French cuisine was the 1533 AD marriage of Henri II to the Italian Caterina de’Medici. • In 415 BCE, Greek invaders introduced olives, honey, and nuts to southern Italy, where they remain prominent ingredients today. • Spain is bordered on several sides by water, allowing easy trade with both nearby neighbors and distant lands. The “Columbian Exchange,” named for explorer Christopher Columbus, brought many new foods to Spain. 11.1 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

6. Morocco • Morocco has been a center for trade since the twelfth century BCE, when the Phoenicians set up trading posts on the coast. • The Arabs, who occupied Morocco in the seventh century, introduced saffron, ginger, cumin, and cinnamon, and combining sweet and sour tastes. • Around the fourteenth century, the Ottomans brought in new pastries and sweets, with the bold use of sugar and honey. • Two spice mixtures are used extensively in Moroccan cuisine: La kama is used to season soups and stews. Ras-el-hanout is used to flavor rice, stews, and tagines. • Couscous is the national dish of Morocco. Chefs steam the tiny grains in a couscoussière, a specialized earthenware or glass cooking vessel. 11.2 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

7. Greece • Archestratos wrote the world’s first cookbook in 330 BCE. • Greece’s abundant olive trees have perhaps made the most basic contribution to its cuisine and to its culture. • Olive oil is the universal fat, and cured olives are widely eaten and exported. • One dish that is synonymous with Greece is moussaka, a casserole of lamb and eggplant. • Olive oil and lemon juice are the two most important flavoring agents used in Greek cuisine. • Baklava is a honey-sweetened pastry made with phyllo dough and chopped nuts. 11.2 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

8. Tunisia • Clear connections can be made between French and Tunisian foods. • Spicy condiments are a major component of Tunisian cuisine. • Many Tunisian ingredients are similar to others in the Maghreb: lamb: spicy merguez sausage, flatbreads, a wide variety of vegetables, and especially couscous. • The strong regional sweet tooth is found here as well, expressed as a passion for honey and fruits, especially dates. • Northwest Tunisia is known for its wild boar and edible fungi, while fishermen catch spiny lobsters off the island of Galita. • Tomatoes are particularly prominent in the Tunisian diet, as are eggs, olives, and pastas. Seafood is also abundant. 11.2 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

9. Section 11.2 Summary • Morocco has been a center for trade since the twelfth century BCE when the Phoenicians established trading posts on the coast and introduced sausage to the region. • In ancient times, the Greeks were extremely interested in cuisine. In fact, it is believed that Archestratos, writing in 330 BCE, produced the world’s first cookbook. • The Tunisian experience of occupation and colonization is very similar to the Moroccan experience up until modern times. The two share a common colonial heritage with the rest of North Africa; series of traders, refugees, and occupiers arrived on their shores bringing with them their own foods, techniques, and recipes. 11.2 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

10. Egypt • Though Egypt is part of the “Fertile Crescent,” most of the country is desert, and today it imports more than 60 percent of its food. • Egypt was governed by various invaders for more than 2,000 years. Traders and colonizers introduced new foods, such as rice and a variety of fruits from India, China, and Persia. • Despite changing economic and demographic patterns, Egyptians still enjoy seafood along the coast and in Alexandria, but savor a soil-based cuisine elsewhere. • Flatbreads are popular. A common variety is eish baladi, which is sprinkled with duqqa, a spice mixture. • Shawarma, shredded meat served in a pita with tahini and analogous to the Greek gyros, may also be a street food. 11.3 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

11. Iran • Iran, or Persia, is one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations, having been established around 7000 BCE. • A major influence on Iranian culture and cuisine came from its presence on the ancient Silk Road, which was a conduit for ingredients such as long-grain rice, citrus fruits, and eggplant. • The basic Iranian meal pattern is to have rice, a meat, and some combination of onion, vegetables, herbs, and nuts. • Stuffed meat and vegetables, known as dolmehs, are popular, as are kebabs, ground meat molded around a stick and grilled. • Desserts tend to be extremely sweet, and many are inspired by French pastries. 11.3 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

12. Saudi Arabia • The food of this region has been influenced by many sources, including trade with the Horn of Africa, India, Iraq, and the Mediterranean. • A typical Saudi meal involves a large communal platter heaped with rice and garnished with meat and vegetable dishes, flatbreads, and fresh pickles. • Baharat and loomi, or dried Omani lime, is one of two extremely popular seasonings in Saudi Arabia. • Dates are extremely important, and have been cultivated in Saudi Arabia for more than 4,000 years. • A common lamb dish is kebabmeshwi, or ground lamb molded around a stick and grilled. 11.3 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

13. Section 11.3 Summary • Egypt is part of the “Fertile Crescent.” The rich Nile Valley and its delta are prime agricultural land, and the river floods annually to ensure a consistent harvest. However, most of the country is desert, and Egypt today imports more than 60 percent of its food. • Iran, or Persia, is one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations, having been established around 7000 BCE. Iranians adopted Islam without adopting Arabian practices, maintaining a distinct Persian identity. • The food of Saudi Arabia has been influenced by many sources such as trade with the Horn of Africa, India, Iraq, and the Mediterranean. 11.3 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

14. China • Chinese cuisine is based on the yin and yang philosophy of the Tao, the belief that a single guiding principle orders the universe. • Mandarin is the cuisine of the northern region of China. Mandarin cuisine refers to the elaborate and delicate specialties prepared for the elite members of the imperial court in Peking. • The cuisine from the neighboring provinces of Szechwan and Hunan is best known for its hot, spicy foods. • Canton cuisine was the first to be introduced to the United States. The city of Canton is situated on the Pearl River, 90 miles inland from the South China Sea and thus it became an international trading center. 11.4 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

15. Japan • Japan’s close neighbors, China and Korea, have played major roles in its culture through both trade and religion. • Westerners introduced cooking techniques like baking and deep-frying, which was quickly adopted as tempura. • The word for cooked rice, gohan, also means meal, demonstrating its essential nature to Japanese cuisine. The other major agricultural product is soybeans. • The Japanese prioritize quality over quantity in their food, prizing each ingredient individually. • Visual appeal is as important as the food itself, so preparation and presentation are meticulous. 11.4 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

16. India • Indians today are largely of the Hindu faith, which promotes vegetarianism and discourages meat consumption. • The British left the most profound impact of all on Indian cuisine. They introduced continental cooking equipment and techniques to India to develop a distinctly Anglo-Indian cuisine. • Curry is often thought of as traditional Indian cooking. Curry is not really a spice; it is a dish. Some specific spices used in curry dishes include turmeric, cumin, coriander, and red pepper. • An important cooking method in northern India is dum, a type of steaming in which preparers cover the cooking pot and seal it with strips of dough. 11.4 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia

17. Section 11.4 Summary • Chinese cuisine is based on the yin and yang philosophy of the Tao, which is the belief that a single guiding principle orders the universe. Foods should not be forced to become something they are not and should be kept in their most natural and pure states. • Japan’s close neighbors, China and Korea, have traditionally played major roles in its culture through trade and religion. Buddhism entered from China in the sixth century, changing Japanese culture. Trade with Westerners has also affected Japanese culture. • Since the fourth century BCE, Hinduism has evolved as the dominant faith in India. Hinduism promotes vegetarianism and discourages meat consumption. Today, 80 percent of Indians belong to the Hindu faith, but India has had many other cultural influences. The British left the most profound impact of all on Indian cuisine. 11.4 Chapter 11 | Global Cuisine 2: Europe, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and Asia