1800-1936 China

1. 1800-1936 China

2. Imperial China Do you know the difference between Imperial China and how it is governed today? What does Imperial mean?

3. 15 Imperial dynasties ruled from 2200BC - 1911 Last dynasty - Manchu Were they Chinese? Why is this important? Why is Chinese called 汉语 as well as 中文？

4. Confucianism, Quietism and the Mandarins Confucius lived from 551-479 BC - was Confucianism a religion? Obedience to guiding rules was key to harmony. How did this help the ‘Mandarins’.....and what are Mandarins? And the ‘Mandate of Heaven’?

5. The Mandate of Heaven

6. Imperial China thought it was self sufficient... ….and thus had a quite arrogant approach to its dealings with the west. What does the phrase 天下 mean? Thus, Western ‘Imperialism’ in the 1900s was quite traumatic. Hang on……...the word ‘Imperial’ simply means a system under Emperors?? But Imperialism refers to a country (or Empire) ‘exerting economic and political control’ over others.

7. Dictionary definition - Imperial and Imperialism Imperial: • of or relating to an empire, emperor, or empress • characteristic of or exercisingsupreme authority; imperious • of or relating to a specified empire, such as the British Empire • of a country having control or sovereignty over other countries or colonies Imperialism: • the policy of extending a state's influence over other peoples or territories • a system of imperial government or rule by an emperor

8. The Opium Wars 1839-42 & 1856-60 What do you know?

9. The Opium Wars 1839-42 & 1856-60 • Britain wanted to (illegally!) sell more Opium to China (from British India and Burma). • China was a major user but resulting widespread addiction had economic and social effects and thus China started to try to shut down the trade, destroying 1400 tonnes in Guangzhou (1839). • British aggression and military success included attacking a blockade near Hong Kong, occupied Canton 1841, occupied Nanking 1842. • China witnessing ‘external’ power and military prowess for the first time, Unequal treaties forced on China opening 50 ‘treaty ports’ HOW DID THE CHINESE FEEL? https://www.britannica.com/topic/Opium-Wars

10. Sino-Japanese War 1895 • China held great influence in Korea, in 1875 Japan forced Korea to ‘open’ to Japanese trade and declare independence from China. • Pro reformers in Korea joined with Japan and tried to overthrow the Chinese backed conservative. They failed, after Yuan Shikairescued the king. A truce was made. • Tensions increased again as China stepped in to crush revolutionaries in Korea, whilst Japan sponsored the rebels. • 1894 war (mainly at sea) breaks out, China has massive navy but Japan more advanced. Japan take Shandong and Manchuria. • Treaty of Shimonoseki cedes Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninuslar, plus gives independence to Korea. Plus trading rights in China to Japan. • Starts ‘scramble for concessions https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895

11. Scramble for concessions in China….. Best example is Hong Kong: 1842 Treaty of Nanking - Britain gains HK island 1860 Beijing Convention - Britain gains Kowloon harbour 1898 Britain gains the rest of Kowloon, the New Territories.

12. How did China now perceive Westerners?

13. How did China now perceive Westerners? Foreign devils Ingenious Exploitative Technologically advanced Humiliating Powerful Provider of work Do they copy Western techniques or cling on national traditions and old hierarchical system?

15. Scene is set for change….. The scene is increasingly set for change of power structure - disenchantment of the Chinese in general Qing dynasty was weakened by years of internalisation but also by giving away concessions to appease foreign powers

16. The Last Years of Imperial China 1900-1911 1898 - 100 days reform An attempt to appease critics over the weak negotiations over concessions and weak military forces BUT Progressives (including the Emperor) Reactionaries (including Empress Cixi) versus

17. 义和拳 Yìhéquán The Righteous and Harmonious Fists BOXER RISING 1900-1901 The perfect example of weak domestic leadership leading to further Western encroachment. This led to: Massive reparations Foreign forces stationed in Beijing THE MANCHUS WERE TERMINALLY WEAKENED.

18. The Boy Emperor & The Railway debacle ...create further unhappiness with Imperial rule….

19. Sun Yatsen • Leading pro-reform, pro-republic name in this ear • Formed Alliance League 1905, which become the Guomindang (GMD) 国民党, Chinese Nationalist Party • Based in Japan/exiled to Japan for many years • Belived in the ‘Three Principles of the People’: democracy, nationalism, socialism • He believed in copying Western political and economic concepts

20. 1911 Revolution - Causes and Consequences By 1911, do you think China was ready for revolution…...why? The trigger was ‘Double Tenth’ incident, or the mutiny of Wuhan on 10 Oct 1911 The Manchu’s had no power in the provinces so the Beijing army, under Yuan Shikai, was sent to impose control. Remember, Yuan Shikai was an esteemed, and influential, general (he had helped crush the initial rebellion in Korea prior to the Sino-Japanese war) but had been sacked in humiliating fashion by the Prince Regent. He was re-appointed BUT... He set about re-establishing power for himself by brokering a deal with the ‘mutinous’ Wuhan military

21. The Nationalists and Yuan Shikai Conveniently for Yuan Shikai, rebellious provinces had gathered in Nanjing to announce the Chinese Republic under Sun Yatsen. BUT They had no military backing so Yuan Shikai negotiated that he became President if he brokered a deal with Beijing for the Manchu/Qing emperor to abdicate. 12 February 1912, Emperor Pu Yi abdicated and the ‘mandate of heaven’ passed to the new Republic (not the GMD) (see p21 of Lynch for useful graphic of this)

22. To think about….. Was 1911 a real revolution replacing old systems with new democracy? OR Was it more the regions versus central authority. Regional autonomy battling with central autocracy is a theme throughout the next few years…..

23. Useful timeline 1912-1916 The rule of Yuan Shikai - important to note that Yuan was the President of the New Republic, not the GMD which was led by Sun Yat Sen. 1916-27 An time of no leadership….leading to The Warlord era 1919-25 The 4 May Movement 1912-1925 The Nationalists under Sun Yat Sen 1921 The founding of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 1924-1927 The GMD-CCP United Front against the Warlords

24. Yuan Shikai’s mis-steps • China’s foreign loan of $100 million • Conceding to Japan’s 21 demands in 1915 • Yuan’s resurrection of the title of Emperor, and acceptance of the role in 1915 • 1916 he stepped down, died three months later Was he entirely self-aggrandising? Did he suffer with the fractured nature of China at this stage? Was he simply acknowledging that China needed a strong central government? And the economic weakness was not his doing…..

25. After Yuan Shikai….. • After the death of Yuan Shikai, China had no strong leader and power continued to accrue to the regions under the Warlords (aided by the Nationalists & Republicans deal making to help them) NB REPUBLICANSNATIONALISTS (GMD) BASED IN BEJING BASED IN GUANGZHOU LED BY SUN YAT SEN Warlord era - along with the behaviour of western powers - was so disordered and distressing it helped to consolidate the view among reformers that a national revolution was necessary P 36 Lynch, useful graphic

26. May 4th Movement 1919-1925 Started May 1st 1919 after the humiliation of the Paris Peace Conference WW1 is the backdrop - China and Japan were urged to join the Allies but Japan tried to ‘hold back’ China so as to enhance its own standing, plus land gains. US persuaded China to join in 1917, after US declared war on Germany. ‘Carrot’ was a ‘seat at the table’ at any post war agreement. BUT: Japan had agreements from European allies that they would receive support over China post war. Republican leader in Beijing, Duan Qirui, had secretly agreed to recognise Japan’s superiority in China anyway (but not territory).

27. May 4th Movement cont’d At the Treaty of Versailles, promises to China were reneged on and Japan was granted formal superiority of China, despite its help in the war. They did not: see Shandong returned from Japan; see a withdrawal of foreign concessions; see a cancellation of Japan’s 21 Demands (1915) This triggered mass revolt, across 100 cities and 20 provinces. China had been humiliated at the hands of foreigners again….even though they had been at the negotiating table…...thus signifying weakness of leadership as well as a clear signal of how China was perceived on the world stage.

28. Key aspect of the May 4th Movement Radical thoughts of revolution had been spreading for some time in China, for reasons discussed. The 4th May movement gave a focus to this desire for revolution amongst students and intellectuals: • Foreign governments - both Western and Japanese - behaviour towards China was humiliating and anti Chinese. Their influence must be stopped. • Could the Republicans (the current government) best represent and China’s best and true interests. P41 Lynch for summary diagram

29. GMD under Sun Yatsen 1912-1925 and Chiang Kai-Shek • In 1917 Sun returned to China, settling in Shanghai, many expatriate Chinese contributed funds to his attempts to set up the GMD proper • In 1920 he formally set up GMD government in Guangzhou • 1923, speech in Guangzhou declaring the ‘Three Principles of the People’ gave a moral purpose for the May 4th revolutionaries. National Sovereignty Democracy - but key is national freedom over individual People’s welfare - socialism in other words Improve the lot of people as a whole, not for individuals; ridding China of foreign influence was to allow China to support itself and its people

30. GMD under Sun Yatsen 1912-1925 Moral intentions were stated but military power was essential so in 1924, the Whampoa Military Academy was formed in Guangzhou. This militarised the GMD and influential figures from then on, including Chiang Kai Shek, had came from the Academy. Sun believed the warlords needed to be beaten and acknowledge some form of central govt before China could move forward. To this end, Sun negotiated with the North and the Communist Party.

31. Founding of the Communist party 1921 Chinese intellectuals of all political leanings were looking for a solution to foreign influence, all revolutionary or ‘non Confucian/Imperial’ thought was Nationalistic. Another angle, not Republican (or GMD) looked to Russia and Marx. Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 was anti the ‘imperialist phase of capitalism’, a key idea for Marxism/Leninism. After the Bolsheviks (under Lenin) success, they ceded their claim to Chinese territories. A key positive to those who looked to Russia as a model. Russian leaders contacted Chinese interested parties…...

32. The Marixist view of Imperialist Capitalism Western powers grow and then their competitive economies lead to over- production and over competition. This excess needs a market and is exported to weaker overseas countries. These countries are exploited for their assets in return. The exploited colonial people should rise up…. “The purpose of us Communists is to wake up the oppressed Oriental peoples from their 100 years slumber and to imbue workers and peasants with a revolutionary spirit to conduct an uncompromising struggle against Imperialists’’

33. Founding of the CCP 1921 With Russian support, in principle and in practice through the Russian Comintern, 20 representatives from various provinces adopted a basic revolutionary programme in 1920 at a meeting in Shanghai. Mao Zedong joined the party in 1921 and, in deference to his great influence, the date of the founding of the party has historically been noted as July 1921. P47 Lynch for summary diagram

34. The GMD/CCP United Front CCP made some ground in China but still very small. After a calamitous conflict with a Beijing warlord, the Russian Comintern advised the Chinese CCP to seek an alliance with the GMD (the other revolutionary party with socialist ideals, ie not wholly incompatible with Communism). The Russian Comintern approached Sun Yat Sen with the proposal, he agreed. Why is Russia being so helpful? • To spread Communism? • A buffer against Japan?

35. The GMD/CCP United Front Both the GMD and CCP are revolutionary parties. Both believe in national unity, destroying warlords and expelling foreigners. With some misgivings on the side of the CCP, the GMD/CCP United Front was established in 1924. Shortly afterwards, SunYat Sen died leaving Chiang Kai Shek to take over. Chiang Kai Shek was a military leader with little time for the social revolutionary views of the CCP. He was sceptical of the alliance with the CCP but saw that a United Front was needed to crush the warlords..after which he planned to crush the CCP.

36. The Northern Expedition or The Northern March 1926-1928 1926 speech by Chiang Kai Shek in Guangzhou urged all Nationalists to join forces to fight the warlords. This was the start of the Northern Expedition. The United Front had 3 main warlord targets (see p53) to be able to gain control of the East of Japan (see map p54). They were successful because of: • Strong military • Cutting off supply lines • Dissatisfaction of the people • Effective liaison with local people eg Mao Zedong and the Hunan peasants

37. Chiang Kai Shek’s attempt to eradicate the CCP After the success of the expedition, Chiang Kai Shek started to remove CCP members from the GMD. The CCP were slow to react. Main reason: Russian Comintern had a huge influence on the CCP and they wanted the United Front to remain. Plus Stalin believed the GMD were truly revolutionary in the ‘international’ sense thus supporting them at the cost of the Chinese Communism would push the cause of international communism. Chiang declared the Northern Expedition complete in 1928

38. Chiang Kai Shek and the warlords In fact, he had not defeated all the warlords. To maintain any power he had to agree that some could keep their own armies and others were offered posts in the GMD. The CCP asserted that the Nationalists (under the banner of the GMD) had done nothing more than come to terms with the warlords and that the Expedition was a power grab by Chiang Kai Shek. Chiang Kai Shek is both weakened as he never really controls China AND increasingly determined to crush the CCP.

39. Chiang attacks the CCP The Shanghai Massacres of 1927 saw the GMD in Shanghai attacked Communists and members of the trade union that had helped the Shanghai warlord be defeated. 1000’s were brutally murdered. The Communists are humiliated. The CCP tried to fight back but to no avail. A group broke with Russian Comintern advice to maintain the United Front and escaped to Jiangxi. These were the surviving members of the CCP and one of them was Mao Zedong. 7 years of struggle with the GMD followed.

40. Chiang rules! He rules China in an authoritarian way, from Nanjng, ruling it was not yet educated in the ways of democracy. How does China always avoid democracy? However, he implemented some forward thinking policies (see p 64) But could not rid himself of foreign presence plus was reliant on German advice to strengthen his military. Some suggest the Nationalists became more right than left wing, almost fascist.

41. Russian communism versus Chinese communism Revolution requires the support of a large body of people (eg the United Front) Russian revolution was based on the ‘proletariat’ or urban working class. China has no such class of people in the numbers required for revolution, it is a predominantly agricultural country. GMD have no support amongst the peasants, their roots are largely urban and somewhat wealthy. The CCP has more a support base amongst the peasants.

42. The Jiangxi Soviet 1927-1936 • A Chinese ‘soviet’ or ‘Communist organisation’ set up in 1928 under Mao who vehemently believed any links with GMD would be the end of the CCP • The GMD had believed in the Russian form of revolution, ie urban led. Mao saw that China was a largely rural population hence the ‘urban’ revolution could not happen. (see pie chart p71) • He thus threw his weight behind the peasants who he believed would more quickly bring about revolution, rather than having to wait for industrialisation. • His recruitment of ‘reds’ or communist party members was much more successful than recruitment rates in the towns. • There was a continued battle of ideals in the CCP but the preservation of the CCP at all became the real issue as the GMD continued to try and crush the CCP in Jiangxi. This was done through encirclement (p73). • https://www.britannica.com/event/Long-March

43. The Long March 1934-35 • In order to be seen as an active decision, and not an escape, the CCP announced that Chinese Red Army of workers would march North to resist the Japanese incursion (the occupation of Manchuria) KEY STATISTICS of the march from Jiangxi to Yanan: DISTANCE COVERED 6250 miles 11 provinces, 18 mountain ranges, 24 rivers 15 battles against the GMD 100,000 people marched, 20,000 people survived Every leader of China (and thus the CCP) from 1949 to mid 1990s were Long March veterans: Mao Zedong, Zhu De, Zhou Enlai, Lin Biao, Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping

44. The Long March…..a success or failure? SUCCESS FAILURE An incredible achievement logistically and militarily Established Mao as the leader apparent of the CCP The ‘reds’ were not annihilated so GMD lost some credibility GMD still effecitvely controlled China GMD had forced the Long March by their attacks on CCP in Jiangxi ie it can be seen as a retreat The Russians and other Western Powers acknowledged GMD and Chiang Kai Shek as de facto leaders of China

45. Quiz! • What does CCP mean? • Did the GMD lead the first attempt at a Republic? • Does ‘democracy’ under the GMD mean the same as it would in the West? • What one thing did all the parties and characters involved in creating a Republic and/or revolution believe in? • Why were the Russians interested in the Chinese situation? • Where does Russian communist and Chinese communist revolution differ in reality?