1 Foundations: An Introduction to Anatomy

1. 1 Foundations: An Introduction to Anatomy

2. Introduction Anatomy The study of external structures The study of internal structures The study of the relationship between body parts The careful observation of the human body

3. Introduction Physiology The study of how the body functions The study of mechanisms in the body

4. Microscopic Anatomy Microscopic anatomy The study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification Cytology—study of cells Histology—study of tissues

5. Microscopic Anatomy Macroscopic anatomy The study of structures that can be seen without magnification Surface anatomy: refers to the superficial anatomical markings Regional anatomy: refers to all structures in a specific area of the body, whether they are superficial or deep Systemic anatomy: The study of the organ systems of the body (digestive system, cardiovascular system, etc.)

6. Figure 1.1 The Study of Anatomy at Different Scales Relative size m tomm Relative sizemmtom Relative sizemtonm meters (m) millimeters (mm) micrometers (m) nanometers (nm) Size 1.7m 120mm 12mm .5mm 120m 10m 2m 1–12m 8–10nm 10–120nm 11nm 2nm 1nm .1nm Approximate Magnification (Reduction)Factor  103  106  108  103  103  106  107  105  106 ( .15) ( .12) ( .6)  20  83 From actual to artwork on this page Human Body Large protozoan Fingertip (width) DNA (diameter) Red blood cell Mitochondrion Human oocyte Amino acids Human heart Ribosomes Bacteria Proteins Viruses Atoms Unaided human eye Compound lightmicroscope Scanning electronmicroscope Transmission electronmicroscope

7. Other Perspectives on Anatomy Developmental anatomy: Examines structural changes over time Embryology: The study of early developmental stages Comparative anatomy: Considers different types of animals Clinical anatomy: Focuses on pathological changes during illness

8. Other Perspectives on Anatomy Surgical anatomy: Studies anatomical landmarks important for surgical procedures Radiographic anatomy: The study of anatomical structures with the use of x-rays or ultrasound scans on an intact body Cross-sectional anatomy: The use of radiographic techniques (CT and MRI scans) to look at cross sections of the body

9. Figure 1.2 Comparative Anatomy Embryo Adult Salmon (bony fish) Somitessegmental blocksforming muscles,vertebrae, etc. Skullsurroundsbrain incranail cavity Vertebraesurroundspinal cordin spinal cavity Dorsal, hollow nervecord formingbrain andspinal cord Notochorda stiffened rod belowspinal cord, usuallyreplaced by vertebrae Muscular tailextends beyondexit ofdigestive tract Chicken Digestivetract Skull Limb bud Somites Vertebrae BasicVertebrateBody Plan Human Mouth Heart Anus Skull Somites Braincaseof cartilage orbone surroundsthe brain Pharyngeal (gill)archesmay persist or be modifiedto form other structuresin adult Ventral bodycavitycontains thoracicand abdominopelvicorgans Vertebrae Limbbuds All vertebrates share a basicpattern of anatomical organizationthat differs from that of otheranimals. The similarities betweenvertebrates are most apparentwhen comparing embryos atcomparable stages ofdevelopment. The similarities are lessobvious when comparingadult vertebrates.

10. Levels of Organization Chemical/Molecular (simple) Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism (complex)

11. Levels of Organization Chemical/Molecular Over a dozen elements in the body Four of them make up 99% of the body Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen Major classes of compounds Water Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids

12. Figure 1.3 Composition of the Body at the Chemical Level of Organization Oxygen26% Hydrogen62% Carbon10% Nitrogen1.5% OTHER ELEMENTS Water – 66% 0.2% 0.2%0.06%0.06%0.05%0.04%0.03%0.0005%0.0000003%(see caption) CalciumPhosphorusPotassiumSodiumSulfurChlorineMagnesiumIronIodineTrace elements Proteins20% Lipids10% Carbohydrates3% Elemental composition of the body. Molecularcomposition ofthe body Trace elements include silicon,fluorine, copper, manganese, zinc,selenium, cobalt, molybdenum,cadmium, chromium, tin,aluminum, and boron.

13. Levels of Organization Cell The smallest living unit in the body Tissue Many cells and some surrounding material Organ Combination of tissues

14. Levels of Organization Organ System Combination of various organs make up a specific system For example: the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas make up the digestive system Humans are composed of 11 organ systems ORGANISM

15. Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization Size Organism Level All of the organ systems mustwork together for a person toremain alive and healthy. 1.7m Organ System Level Cardiovascular Lymphoid Endocrine Respiratory Nervous Muscular Digestive Urinary Skeletal Integumentary Reproductive The cardiovascular systemincludes the heart, the blood,and blood vessels. Organ Level The heart is acomplex three-dimensional organ. 120mm Tissue Level Cardiac muscle tissueconstitutes the bulk ofthe walls of the heart. 1mm Cellular Level Cardiac muscle tissueis formed from interlockingheart muscle cells. 1mm Chemical orMolecular Levels Heart muscle cellscontain within themcontractileprotein fibers. 10m 10nm Complex contractileprotein fibers areorganized from molecules. Molecules areformed frominteracting atoms. .1nm

16. Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 1 of 2) MAJOR FUNCTIONS ORGAN SYSTEM Protection from environmentalhazards; temperature control Integumentarysystem Support, protection of soft tissues;mineral storage; blood formation Skeletalsystem Locomotion, support, heatproduction Muscularsystem Directing immediate responses tostimuli, usually by coordinating theactivities of other organ systems Nervoussystem Directing long-term changesin the activities of other organsystems Endocrinesystem Internal transport of cells anddissolved materials, includingnutrients, wastes, and gases Cardiovascularsystem

17. Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 2 of 2) ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR FUNCTIONS Defense against infection anddisease Lymphoidsystem Delivery of air to sites where gasexchange can occur between the air and circulating blood Respiratorysystem Processing of food andabsorption of organic nutrients,minerals, vitamins, and water Digestivesystem Elimination of excess water,salts, and waste products;control of pH Urinarysystem Production of sex cells andhormones Reproductivesystem

18. An Introduction to Organ Systems Responsiveness (irritability) A change in activity based on a stimulus Adaptability Long-term responsiveness Growth The increase in size of an organism Differentiation Becoming specialized to perform particular functions

19. An Introduction to Organ Systems Reproduction The production of new generations of the same organism Movement The ability to change the position of something Metabolism All the chemical reactions in the body Anabolism: the synthesis of complex molecules Catabolism: the breakdown of complex molecules

20. An Introduction to Organ Systems Absorption: The process of bringing chemicals into the body Respiration: The absorption, transport, and use of oxygen by cells Digestion: The processes of catabolism that make nutrients small enough to be absorbed Excretion: The removal of wastes

21. HOMEOSTASIS • Homeostatic regulation is the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis. • Two general mechanisms are involved in homeostatic regulation: autoregulation and extrinsic regulation: • 1. Autoregulation, (intrinsic regulation)a cell, a tissue, an organ, or an organ system adjusts automatically in response to some environmental change. • Example: oxygen decrease- cells release chemicals- dilate bl.vessels. • 2. Extrinsic regulation nervous system or endocrine system control or adjust the activities of many systems . • For example: exercise-n.s. increases heart rate & n.s. reduces blood flow to less active organs(digestive)

22. nervous system directs rapid, short-term, and very specific responses. (hot stove) • endocrine system releases chemical messengers, called hormones, that affect tissues and organs throughout the body. • The responses may not be immediately apparent, but they may persist for days or weeks. • Ex:regulation of blood volume and composition (starvation). • The endocrine system also plays a major role in growth and development

23. homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of three parts: • (1) a receptor, a sensor that is sensitive to a particular environmental change, or stimulus; • (2) a control center, or integration center, which receives and processes the information supplied by the receptor; and • (3) an effector, a cell or organ that responds to the commands of the control center and whose activity either opposes or enhances the stimulus.

24. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK • an effector activated by the control center opposes, or negates, the original stimulus. Negative feedback thus tends to minimize change, • Most homeostatic regulatory mechanisms involve negative feedback. (body temperature)hypothalamus,

25. Negative feedback

26. POSITIVE FEEDBACK • In positive feedback, an initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the change in the original conditions rather than opposing it. • positive feedback loops are often incorporated into control mechanisms in which a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly. • For example, the immediate danger from a severe cut is the loss of blood, which can lower blood pressure and reduce the efficiency of the heart. clotting gets under way, each step releases chemicals that accelerate the process. formation of a blood clot, patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding. Also labor and delivery,

27. Positive feedback

29. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 1 of 12) The Integumentary System Protects againstenvironmental hazards;helps control bodytemperature Hair Epidermis andassociatedglands Fingernail

30. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 2 of 12) The Skeletal System Provides support; protectstissues; stores minerals;forms blood cells AXIALSKELETON APPENDICULARSKELETON Skull Supporting bones(scapula andclavicle) Sternum Upper limbbones Ribs Vertebrae Sacrum Pelvis (supportingbones plus sacrum) Lower limbbones

31. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 3 of 12) The Muscular System Allows for locomotion;provides support;produces heat Appendicularmuscles Axialmuscles

32. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 4 of 12) The Nervous System Directs immediateresponses to stimuli,usually by coordinatingthe activities of other organ systems CENTRAL NERVOUSSYSTEM Brain Spinalcord PERIPHERAL NERVOUSSYSTEM Peripheralnerves

33. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 5 of 12) The Endocrine System Directs long-termchanges in activitiesof other organsystems Pineal gland Pituitary gland Parathyroid gland Thyroid gland Thymus Pancreas Suprarenal gland Ovary infemale Testis in male

34. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 6 of 12) The Cardiovascular System Transports cells and dissolved materials,including nutrients,wastes, and gases Heart Capillaries Artery Vein

35. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 7 of 12) The Lymphoid System Defends againstinfection and disease;returns tissue fluid tothe bloodstream Lymph nodes Thymus Spleen Lymphatic vessel

36. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 8 of 12) The Respiratory System Delivers air to sites wheregas exchange can occurbetween the air andcirculating blood;produces sound Nasal cavity Sinus Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lung Diaphragm

37. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 9 of 12) The Digestive System Processes food andabsorbs nutrients Salivary gland Pharynx Esophagus Liver Gallbladder Stomach Pancreas Large intestine Small intestine Anus

38. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 10 of 12) The Urinary System Eliminates excesswater, salts, andwaste products Kidney Ureter Urinarybladder Urethra

39. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 11 of 12) The Male Reproductive System Produces sex cellsand hormones Prostate gland Seminal gland Ductusdeferens Urethra Epididymis Testis Penis Scrotum

40. Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 12 of 12) The Female Reproductive System Produces sex cellsand hormones; supports embryonicdevelopment fromfertilization to birth Mammary gland Uterinetube Ovary Uterus Vagina Externalgenitalia

41. The Language of Anatomy Superficial Anatomy Using the proper terms to identify the structures of the body helps physicians communicate with each other and the patient The terms are typically derived from Latin or Greek Latin or Greek is used because they are descriptive languages

42. Figure 1.7 The Importance of Precise Vocabulary

43. The Language of Anatomy Anatomical Landmarks Anatomical position The hands are at the side The palms are facing forward All discussion of the human body is in reference to the anatomical position Supine: lying down (face up) in the anatomical position Prone: lying down (face down) in the anatomical position

44. Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks Frons orforehead (frontal) Nasus or nose (nasal) Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Auris or ear (otic) Craniumor skull(cranial) Cephalonor head(cephalic) Bucca or cheek (buccal) Faciesor face(facial) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Oris or mouth (oral Mentis or chin(mental) Thoracis or thorax, chest(thoracic) Axilla or armpit(axillary) Mammaor breast (mammary) Brachiumor arm(brachial) Trunk Abdomen(abdominal) Antecubitisor front ofelbow(antecubital) Umbilicusor naval (umbilical) Antebrachiumor forearm(antebrachial) Pelvis(pelvic) Carpusor wrist (carpal) Palmaor palm(palmar) Manusor hand (manual) Inguenor groin (inguinal) Digits(phalanges)or fingers (digitalor phalangeal) Pollexor thumb Pubis(pubic) Femur or thigh (femoral) Patellaor kneecap(patellar) Crus or leg (crural) Tarsus orankle(tarsal) Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital orphalangeal) Pes or foot(pedal) Hallux or great toe Anterior view in the anatomical position.

45. The Language of Anatomy Head and Neck Region Frons Nasus Oculus Auris Bucca Oris Mentis Cervis Occipital (posterior head region)

46. Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2) Frons orforehead (frontal) Nasus or nose (nasal) Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Auris or ear (otic) Craniumor skull(cranial) Cephalonor head(cephalic) Bucca or cheek (buccal) Faciesor face(facial) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Oris or mouth (oral Mentis or chin(mental) Thoracis or thorax, chest(thoracic) Axilla or armpit(axillary) Mammaor breast (mammary) Brachiumor arm(brachial) Trunk Abdomen(abdominal) Antecubitisor front ofelbow(antecubital) Umbilicusor naval (umbilical) Antebrachiumor forearm(antebrachial)

47. The Language of Anatomy Torso Region Thoracis Mamma Abdomen Umbilicus Pelvis Dorsum Lumbus

48. Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2) Frons orforehead (frontal) Nasus or nose (nasal) Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Auris or ear (otic) Craniumor skull(cranial) Cephalonor head(cephalic) Bucca or cheek (buccal) Faciesor face(facial) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Oris or mouth (oral Mentis or chin(mental) Thoracis or thorax, chest(thoracic) Axilla or armpit(axillary) Mammaor breast (mammary) Brachiumor arm(brachial) Trunk Abdomen(abdominal) Antecubitisor front ofelbow(antecubital) Umbilicusor naval (umbilical) Antebrachiumor forearm(antebrachial)

49. Figure 1.8b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2) Cephalonor head (cephalic) Cervicisor neck (cervical) Shoulder(acromial) Dorsum or(back(dorsal) Olecranonor backof elbow(olecranal) Upper limb Lumbusor loin(lumbar)

50. Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2) Antebrachiumor forearm(antebrachial) Pelvis(pelvic) Carpusor wrist (carpal) Palmaor palm(palmar) Manusor hand (manual) Inguenor groin (inguinal) Pollexor thumb Digits(phalanges)or fingers (digitalor phalangeal) Pubis(pubic) Femur or thigh (femoral) Patellaor kneecap(patellar) Crus or leg (crural) Tarsus orankle(tarsal) Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital orphalangeal) Pes or foot(pedal) Hallux or great toe