Stuff

1. Stuff • Reading Notes Due on Friday • If you need old reading notes come to my office • Good discussion on Friday • May discuss the other two chapter this Friday • Watch for e-mail • Remember CLASS paper due on April 24th

2. Post War America and the Indian

3. WWII changed the world, America and life and expectations for Native Americans • Colonies around the world began to break down • Communities and countries around the world began to demand and take, a path, to Self-Determination

4. For some white politicians WWII had taught them “new” ideas with regard to Native Americans • Having seen Native American soldiers fight with, and function effectively within, the Armed forces • In non-segregated units

5. This “New” Idea • They believed that Indians deserved to share equally in the benefits of citizenship • Could be drawn fully into the economic, social, and cultural fabric of America • Can anyone say assimilation?

6. By moving in this way • Native Americans could be removed from rural ghettos • No awareness of the Navajo Code Talkers • Genuinely wanted to help • Others had the same ideas • But not the same motivations

7. Collier was tied to FDR • New deal policies came to be seen as communist • Collier’s protection of native land was damaging to business • Therefore dangerous to America • Remember Joe McCarthy

8. Conservative politicians wanted to • Trim federal budget • See America as a single identity • Both these aims were turned to Native America • With disastrous results • The aim was to redefine the relationship • Phase out tribal government • Terminate the relationship between the federal government and Native America

9. Brief video overview on issues of land and sovereignty

10. Termination • We heard in the video that tribal sovereignty had never been taken away • Yet for a period of time in the 20th Century and for a few groups that is exactly what occurred

11. After Colliers' resignation • replaced by William Brophy and John Nicholls • good men but unable to rebuff the attacks on the role of the BIA • 1950 Pres. Truman appointed Dillon S. Myer

12. Myer had managed relocation of Japanese to camps • Believed that Japanese-Americans and others should and could be assimilated • Why? • To reduce racial tension • Turned focus to Native Americans to achieve this goal • Launched a political counter-offensive

13. Native American cultures an Oxymoron • He argued that Native Americans had no “legitimate cultures” • Government had no business in encouraging native languages, arts, literature, and government. • End cultural pluralism • Deemphasized day schools near reservations • Enlarged boarding school process

14. When Eisenhower assumed presidency in 1952 Myer knew he would not be reappointed • But didn’t want to lose influence and power • Volunteered support and guidance to new commissioner Glenn Emmons

15. One of Myer first acts of help was to compose a letter to congress • Proposal suggested Termination • Policy was already doing the rounds in the halls of power • They main players • Emmons • Former banker from New Mexico • Arthur V. Watkins of Utah • Chair of Senate Committee on Indian Affairs • Abolish tax free status of reservations

16. Conservative republicans chaired Committee of Indian Affairs in both houses • Pushed through termination bill as a • “valuable and salutary Congressional measure” • August 1st 1953 Congress unanimously passed • House Concurrent Resolution 108

17. Concurrent Resolution 108 • Congress wanted Indians to be • “subject to the same laws and entitled to the same privileges and responsibilities” • As other Americans, listed nations in • That were prepared to have federal services withdrawn • California • New York • Wisconsin • Oregon • Montana • Kansas • Nebraska • Florida • Texas

18. Resolution 108 was not law • But it guided Indian policy and • Two weeks later congress passed • Public Law 280 (PL 280) • Placed lands in Minnesota, Wisconsin, California, Nebraska and Oregon under • Criminal and civil legislation of the states • President Eisenhower signed it into Law noting • Congress had not included a provision • ‘asking for native consent’

19. PL 280 reminiscent of laws in • 1830s Georgia • 1850s California • Ignored policies under Collier • Congressmen knew that Indians would oppose termination • This is why they didn’t consult • 1954 House and Senate passed laws • Terminating federal relationships with particular tribes • Ending tribal governments and constitution • Effectively forced Native Americans to be subjects of the state in which they lived

20. US had got out of the ‘Indian Business’ • Ordered states and counties to take over • Indians could either • sell land and resources and offer per capita payments or • transfer title to a trustee • Individual Indians given title to land so they could sell them • Can anyone say allotment?

21. Many Native Americans found out about PL 280 long after the fact. • Surprised and uprooted in one day • Others however recognized the danger • Several tribal council passed resolutions opposing it • National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) • Organized in 1944 • Mobilized against Termination in 1953

22. Termination • An attempt to • “desegregate Indian communities and integrate Indians into the rest of society” • also intended as • “the ultimate destruction of tribal cultures and native life-styles” • Donald L. Fixico • Creek, Seminole, Shawnee Sac and Fox

23. Many Native Americans found out about PL 280 long after the fact. • Surprised and uprooted in one day • Others however recognized the danger • Several tribal council passed resolutions opposing it • National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) • Organized in 1944 • Mobilized against Termination in 1953

24. Lead figure in the National Congress of American Indian (NCAI) and their opposition to PL 280 • Joseph Garry • Former Marine and Chair of Coeur d’Alene tribe • NCAI argument was that: • Only Native Americans, not congress, could end tribal-government relationship

25. As with many issues Native American ironic black humor appeared in the condemnation of termination • Earl Old Person • Blackfeet elder • Native translation for Termination: wipe out, kill off • Planning your future under the threat of termination like cooking • “a meal in your tipi when someone is standing outside trying to burn the tipi down”

26. Another strong campaigner • Lucy Covington • Colville Confederated tribe • Some members waivered towards terminating • Covington took the lead • “Lucy Covington single-handily stopped the Coalvilles from terminating” • Tribal member

27. With help of Commissioner of Indian Affairs Philleo Nash • She successfully fought Washington Senator Henry Jackson • Prevented termination in 1966

28. Not the result for all tribes • Finally congress terminated 109 tribes • 3 % of federally recognized tribes • Together owned 3.2% of native lands • 1958 “rancheria bill” part of the attack on California where 41 reservations were terminated • Most from any single state

29. Two of most well known acts of termination era • 1954 Klamath Termination Act • And • 1961 Menominee Termination Act • But before we get to these two cases

30. New documentary series

31. 1958 congress authorized sale of forests to private companies • 1,659 Klamaths (77%) voted to terminate • Received one time payment of $43,000 • To pay for this government agents sold 717,000 acres • Remaining 474 Klamath (23%) voted to retain tribal status had 145,000 acres

32. Klamath Termination • 1954 act passed • Allowed natives on Klamath reservation to • A) remain with the tribe and placing unsold part of reservation into trust • B) sever relationship with tribe and federal government • Those who severed received share of tribal assets

33. Klamath identified for termination due to • Rich timber resources • Relative prosperity • $2 million gross annual income from sale of tribal timber • Leader for termination was Wade Crawford a tribal member – lived of the reservation

34. 1974 these people voted to terminate • Per capita payment $173,000 • Despite this all Klamath continued to identify as Indians • 1975 readopted tribal constitution • Klamath Tribe of Oregon • Asserted water, hunting and fishing rights as provided in treaty • Lobbied congress to restore tribal status • 1978 congress recognized the Klamath and restored federal status

35. Friday Termination cont. and discussion

36. Menominee Termination • 1961 act passed • First proposed 1954 • 1953 Menominee had been seeking distribution of earlier settlement • Senator Watkins of Utah • Supporter of termination • Added amendment to payment • Termination precondition to payment • Led to confusion on reservation

37. Menominee voted unanimously for termination • Of 3,254 members of the tribe on 200 actually voted • Most Menominee refused to vote to show opposition to even discussing or recognizing termination as a policy • 1961 created Menominee Enterprises Inc • To operate their lumber mills and lands

38. Termination proved to be disastrous • Had to close tribal hospital • Tuberculosis, had been on decline, rose again • 1965 1/3 of tribe were positive for the disease • infant mortality 200% above national average • And children who survived no longer recognized as Indian • tribal rolls had been closed in 1954 with termination

39. Unemployment on reservation rose to 25% • Forcing tribe to sell land to non natives along lakes and in prime hunting grounds • 1970 formed • Determination of Rights and Unity for Menominee Shareholders (DRUMS) • Led by Ada Deer • December 22 1973 President Nixon signed the Menominee Restoration Act

40. This act effectively ended Termination era • Federal government neither • A) Got out of Indian business • 1953 – 1973 BIA grew in budget and staff • B) Saved money • Federal government spent vast sums on • Welfare, public health, and Social Security • Native Americans did not enter melting pot • But helped ignite a new activism among Native Americans