Nature of the sources and the manipulation of Cleopatra’s image

1. The writers of the Augustan Age: Virgil, Propertius, Horace and VelleiusPaterculus These authors all wrote during Augustus’ reign and are, to some extent, supporting his view of events. Octavian had to justify his actions. Presenting Cleopatra as the enemy of Rome and the ‘doomed, destructive monster’ as Horace says, would be what he wanted. Virgil and Horace were part of acircle of writers which Maecenas, Augustus’ adviser, gathered round him. Both benefited from the emperor’s support in property and livelihood and both, in some ways, repaid him. Virgilb. 70BC d. 19BC. The extract is from his epic poem The Aeneid, which traces Aeneas’ escape from Troy. This legendary ancestor of the Romans (specifically Julius Caesar!) made his way to Italy (Books 1-6). Books 7-12 tell the story of his settling and wars he fought to establish his followers. In Book 8 Aeneas is given a golden shield by his mother Venus, made by Vulcan. On it are carved scenes from Rome’s future including the battle of Actium revealing Octavian in all his glory. Some view this as propaganda for Augustus but there is much more to this work than a work celebrating the triumph of Augustus. Horaceb. 65BC d. 8BC. He made the mistake of joining the wrong side in the civil war between Brutus/Cassius and Octavian/Antony in 42 BC. As a result his family had their property confiscated. However, he was taken up and supported by Maecenas in 38BC and became friends with Augustus. His Odes are short poems on all subjects from love to politics. He presents Augustus almost as a god in some poems having saved the world from barbarians east and west. Nature of the sources and the manipulation of Cleopatra’s image

2. Propertiusborn c.50BC. He wrote mostly love elegies. He tends to keep off serious themes of war and politics but there are some poems in which he has a nationalist approach and explores Augustus themes e.g.Book 4.6. Despite claiming not to have the inclination for it, he provides a very favourable view of Octavian at Actium! • All three poets portray Cleopatra in very much the same way which suited Octavian’s political purpose. • Horacedescribes Cleopatra as • ‘that queen preparing some insane destruction for the capitol and planning a funeral for our empire. She had with her that disgraceful mob of diseased men; she herself was out of control, hoping for whatever she wanted, made drunk by sweet good fortune.’ • He makes no mention of Antony at the battle of Actium. Her defeat is a cause to bring out the wine and rejoice. Virgilmentions Antony,victoriousfrom the East but: • ‘He brought with him Egypt and the strength of the East and furthest Bactria, but followed by his Egyptian wife (the shame of it!).’ • Virgil contrasts this with: • ‘Augustus Caesar led the Italians into battle with the senators and the people, and with the household gods and the great gods of Rome. He stood there well-pleased on the high stern. From his forehead there poured twin flames, and his father’s star appeared on his head.’ • Virgil’s message about who was in the right in this struggle is emphasised with religious imagery. Propertius does the same in his poem Elegies 4.6 using the god Apollo to speak in favour of Octavian as the saviour of Rome. He presents Cleopatra as • ‘That woman makes for the River Nile, vainly relying on her own ship in her pointless escape. One thing she did achieve: she did not die on the appointed day. • The gods had a better plan: one woman would not have made so great a triumph through the streets where previously the defeated Jugurtha had been led.’ Read Virgil Aeneid 6.688 and Propertius Elegies 4.6, lines 50-57: how is Cleopatra presented? Again, the poet provides political support for Octavian’s actions in the way Cleopatra is made out to be a disastrous enemy to Rome. More than that she was a woman and a queen – and the Romans hated kings. ‘a disgrace that Roman javelins were held on the orders of a woman…. It’s a disgrace that Italian seas should suffer the presence of royal ships while you are our leader.’ (Propertius 4.6) Included in this portrayal is the undercurrent of dislike of foreigners and of what is seen as luxury and easy-living of eastern peoples. Velleius (2.82) sees Antony’s behaviour affected by his behaviour as an eastern prince: ‘As a result, he decided now to wage war on his own country. He had already ordered that he was called the new Father Liber. He wore a crown of leaves on his head, and a golden robe of saffron yellow; he held the thyrsus wand and wore the high boots, all to look like Father Liber when carried in procession on a chariot through the streets of Alexandria.’ VelleiusPaterculusb. 19 or 20BC. Served with Gaius Caesar (Augustus’ grandson) in the East and then with future Emperor Tiberius in Germany. His book written in AD30. He took part in many of the events of the early years of the 1st century AD and was a senator. However, he is very uncritical of either Augustus or Tiberius. Although he was not alive at the time of the battle of Actium, he would have access to memoirs and documents which we do not have today. However, his work is a summary rather than fully researched history and therefore contains less detail than other works. His comment on the significance of Actium is typical of his biased and sometime superficial analysis of events. Equally his claim that Octavian was merciful and executed no one is not supported by the facts. ‘In the summer when Caesar Octavian finished the war in Sicily against PompeiusSextus so successfully, fortune was certainly generous to Caesar Octavian and to the state, but was savagely bad for the armies in the East.’ This is how he begins his short account of Actium and at once the contrast is made between Octavian and Antony which continues throughout his version showing his lack of objectivity.

3. Suetonius • Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus born AD 69. He became Secretary to the Emperor Hadrian (AD 117). He may have died around AD 140. He wrote a number of works, among which are the lives of the first twelve Caesars beginning with Julius. After the life of Nero, they become much less well-documented implying that he no longer had access to documents in the Imperial Library. This may be when he was dismissed for some • affair with the Empress Sabina. The short passage from his biography of Julius Caesar is not the only time he mentions Cleopatra. In section 48 and 49 he tells us about Caesar in Egypt and the reasons for his interference in the family dispute. Otherwise he, like Plutarch, is focused on the character of his subject and he tells us his stories and rumours without much critical judgement. He also does not always give us a chronological order to his biography. • Both Suetonius and Plutarch lived long after the events described. Plutarch did travel and may have visited some of the places he mentions. Suetonius is unlikely to have done so. Both are relying upon other sources and information, although Suetonius had some access to documents as librarian to Hadrian. Both follow the tradition in ancient historical writing of providing speeches which may or may not be accurate but which dramatise or characterise the event or person. Their descriptions also may contain some imaginative recreations of events. Neither were military men and their experience of these matters was limited. • Plutarch • Plutarch was born in AD 46 in the Greek town of Chaeronea. His Lives of various Greek and Roman personalities is one of his works. His aim was to explore the character of famous men to provide lessons for the future. He does not approach his subjects with the intention of telling everything which happens but restricts himself to those events and incidents which reflect upon the subject of the biography. • The biography of Antony is paired with that of Demetrius. In both he sees them as suffering reversals of fortune. In his view both became too involved in luxury and enjoyment. But the contrast is that Antony was harsh and cruel in his attempt to impose power on the Romans and too often let slip the chance to win victories, distracted by Cleopatra. • Plutarch sees in Antony’s story a lesson concerning success and its dangers. He is concerned with the influence of character on lives and actions and so he presents ‘rounded’ character portrayals in a way which will develop that theme. He is interested in stories and sometimes emphasises those rather than the great events happening at the time. However, he does tell the story chronologically so that there is a clear and simple timeline to follow.