Motor Behavior

1. Motor Behavior Chapter 5

2. Goals of Motor Behavior • Understand how motor skills are learned • Understand how motor skills are controlled • Understand how learning and control of motor skills changes across the lifespan Thomas and Thomas

3. Definitions • Motor Learning –acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and experience • Motor Control –neurophysiological and behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements • Motor Development –origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan

4. Learning • Relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of instruction, experiences, study, and/or practice. • Inferred from changes in performance. • Motor behavior is concerned with the learning or acquisition of skills across the lifespan. • Motor learning • Motor control • Motor development

5. Motor Learning and Motor Control

6. Historical Development • Early Period (1880-1940) • Research focused on how the mind worked, not the production of skills. • Thorndike: Law of Effect • When responses were rewarded, the behavior was strengthened. • Middle Period (1940-1970) • Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses information to determine the motor response. • Henry - “Memory drum theory” (role of cognitive activity in motor learning)

7. Historical Development • Present Period (1970-present) • Emergence of motor learning and motor control within physical education programs. • Closed Loop theory (Adams) • Schema theory (Schmidt) • Dynamical Systems theory (Kelso)

8. Sample Research Questions • How does the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition? • How does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills? • What can be done to facilitate the transfer of previous learning to the learning of new skills? • How does the aging process affect motor control? • How do differences in individuals’ learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

9. Information-Processing Model Input Decision-Making Output Feedback

10. Dynamical-System Theory Human Movement

11. Stages of Learning • Cognitive Stage • Understanding of the nature and goal of the activity • Initial attempts at the skill - gross errors • Associative Stage • Practice on mastering the timing of the skill • Fewer and more consistent errors • Autonomous Stage • Well coordinated and appears effortless • Few errors • “Automatic” performance allows attention to be directed to other aspects of skill performance

12. Open vs Closed Skills • Closed Skills • Stable, predictable; self-paced • Diving 2 ½ somersault • Bowling • Driving golf ball off a tee • Open Skills • Variable, unpredictable; externally-paced • Hitting tennis forehand in a match • Defending a player during a soccer game • Offensive play during rugby game

13. Factors Influencing Learning • Readiness • Physiological and psychological factors influencing an individual’s ability and willingness to learn. • Motivation • A condition within an individual that initiates activity directed toward a goal. Concern with initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior. • Reinforcement • Using events, actions, and behaviors to increase the likelihood of a certain response recurring. May be positive or negative. • Individual differences • Backgrounds, abilities, intelligence, learning styles, and personalities of learners.

14. Motor Learning Concepts • Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning. • Help learners understand the skill or task. • Design practice according to the skill or task to be learned. • Whether to teach by the whole or the part method depends on the skill and the learner. • Whether speed or accuracy is emphasized in teaching a skill depends on the requirements of the skill.

15. Motor Learning Concepts • Transfer of learning can facilitate the acquisition of motor skills. • Feedback is essential for learning. • Knowledge of results (KR) • Knowledge of performance (KP) • Learners may experience plateaus in learning. • Develop self-analysis. • Leadership influences the amount of learning.

16. Motor Development

17. Motor Development • Study of the origins and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan. • Biological and environmental influences on motor behavior from infancy to old age. • Influence of psychological, sociological, cognitive, biological, and mechanical factors on motor behavior. • Rate and sequence of development.

18. Historical Development • Maturational Period (1928-1946) • Research on the underlying biological processes guiding maturation. • Focus on rate and sequences of motor development from infancy in terms of acquisition of rudimentary and mature movements. • Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970s) • Description of the motor performances of children. • Research on how growth and maturation affect performance and the impact of perceptual-motor development. • Process-Oriented Period (1980s-present) • Research on how cognitive factors influence motor skill acquisition and motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

19. Sample Research Questions • How does socioeconomic status affect the development of motor skills? • How does early sensory stimulation affect the development of motor skills? • What are the changes in motor skill development experienced across the lifespan? • What are the developmental stages individuals go through as they acquire fundamental skills? • What are the heredity and environmental factors most significantly associated with obesity? • At what age can children safely engage in resistance training?

20. Phases of Development • Early reflexive & rudimentary movement phases • Hereditary is the primary factor for development. Sequential progression of development but individuals’ rates of development will differ. • Fundamental movement phase • Skill acquisition based on encouragement, instruction, and opportunities for practice. • Specialized movement phase • Skill refinement • Hereditary and environmental factors influence the rate of the aging process.

21. Fundamental Motor Skills • Fundamental motor skills are the foundation for development of more complex and specialized motor skills used in games, sports, dance, and fitness activities. • Classification: • Locomotor • Nonlocomotor • Manipulative

22. Fundamental Motor Skills • Locomotor • Examples: walking, running, jumping, hopping, leaping, sliding, skipping, galloping, dodging • Nonlocomotor • Examples: bending, stretching, pushing, pulling, twisting, turning, swinging • Manipulative • Examples: throwing, catching, striking, kicking, dribbling, volleying

23. Fundamental Motor Skills • Rate of progress in developing these skills varies with each individual. • Several fundamental motor skills can be combined to create a specialized movement necessary in an activity. • Lack of development of fundamental skills may hinder future participation in activities.

24. Acquisition of Fundamental Skills • Initial Stage(~ age 2) • Poor spatial and temporal integration of skill movements. • Improper sequencing of the parts of the skill • Poor rhythm, difficulties in coordination • Elementary Stage (~ age 3 & 4) • Greater control and rhythmical coordination • Temporal and spatial elements are better synchronized. • Movements are still restricted, exaggerated, or inconsistent. • Mature Stage(~age 5 or 6) • Increased efficiency, enhanced coordination, and improved control of movements. • Greater force production