Psychology 305B: Theories of Personality Lecture 19

1. Psychology 305B: Theories of Personality Lecture 19 Psychology 305

2. Lecture 19 Questions That Will Be Answered In Today’s Lecture Intelligence, continued 3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence? • Sex Differences in Personality • What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? • What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality? Psychology 305

3. Sex Differences in Personality, continued 3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs? Psychology 305

4. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence? • In recent years, a number of theorists have argued against the view that intelligence is best represented by a single score—the IQ score. • At a statistical level, these theorists have noted that IQ scores do not account for a substantial amount of the variance in life outcomes. For example: • r between IQ scores and grades = .50 • r between IQ scores and SES = .40 Psychology 305

5. At a theoretical level, these theorists have argued that intelligence should be viewed as a multifaceted construct rather than a single broad entity. • Two theories have been proposed that maintain that intelligence is a multifaceted construct: Psychology 305

6. 1. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence • This theory maintains that there are 3 facets of intelligence: (a) Analytical facet (b) Creative facet (c) Practical facet Psychology 305

7. Consistent with Sternberg’s theory, research suggests that these 3 facets are only weakly correlated with one another. • Moreover, research suggests that the analytical facet is the only facet that is assessed to any degree by standard intelligence tests. For instance, research has shown that scores on practical intelligence tests are relatively independent of scores on IQ tests. E.g., Ceci & Liker (1986): Examined the relation between practical intelligence scores and IQ scores among men who placed bets in horse races. Psychology 305

8. 2. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences • Gardener argues that the conceptualization of intelligence as a single broad entity does not account for individuals who have extraordinary talent in one area but lack “general intelligence” (e.g., savants). Gardner’s theory attempts to account for the extraordinary talents of these individuals. Psychology 305

9. Gardner (1993) stated: “In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings—initially a blank slate—could be trained to learn anything, provided that it was presented in an appropriate way. Nowadays an increasing number of researchers believe precisely the opposite; that there exists a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early 'naive' theories that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence.” Psychology 305

10. Gardener’s theory maintains that there are 8 types of intelligence: 1. Linguistic intelligence 2. Logical mathematical intelligence 3. Spatial intelligence 4. Musical intelligence 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence 6. Intrapersonal intelligence 7. Interpersonal intelligence 8. Naturalist intelligence Psychology 305

11. Gardener maintained that all 8 intelligences are neurologically represented. Consistent with his argument, research suggests that damage to specific areas of the brain impairs some types of intelligence while leaving other types of intelligence intact. Psychology 305

12. Examples: (a) Damage to the right parietal lobe results in the loss of intrapersonal intelligence. (b) Damage to the left parietal lobe results in the loss of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. (c) Damage to the frontal and temporal lobes of the right hemisphere results in the loss of interpersonal intelligence Psychology 305

13. Gardner argued that the 8 intelligences are amoral in that they can be put to constructive or destructive use: “I want my children to understand the world, but not just because the world is fascinating and the human mind is curious. I want them to understand it so that they will be positioned to make it a better place. Knowledge is not the same as morality, but we need to understand if we are to avoid past mistakes and move in productive directions. An important part of that understanding is knowing who we are and what we can do …. The performance of understanding …we carry out as human beings in an imperfect world which we can affect for good or for ill.” (Gardner, 1999) Psychology 305

14. Gardner believed that each person has a unique blend of intelligences. He argued that the greatest challenge facing each of us is to determine “how to best take advantage of the uniqueness conferred on us as a species exhibiting … [multiple] intelligences.” Psychology 305

15. What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? • Stereotypes: Cognitive schemas or frameworks that contain beliefs about specific social groups. The beliefs are generalizations about the typical or “modal” characteristics of group members. The beliefs may or may not be consistent with group members’ actual characteristics. Psychology 305

16. Research suggests that the content of male and female stereotypes is remarkably consistent across cultures. • E.g., Williams and Best (1990) • Recruited male and female participants from 30 countries (e.g., Austria, Bolivia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Peru, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Unites States). • Presented participants with 300 trait adjectives and asked them to indicate which traits are more characteristic of men and which traits are more characteristic of women. Psychology 305

17. Employed two criteria to identify the traits that comprise male and female stereotypes across cultures: 1. If more than two-thirds of the people within a country agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was consensus within that country for the trait. 2. If more than three-quarters of the countries surveyed agreed that a trait is more characteristic of men or women, it was assumed that there was cross-cultural consensus for the trait. Psychology 305

18. Traits Consensually Associated with Men Dominant Self-confident Boastful Adventurous Assertive Unkind Strong Energetic Opportunistic Aggressive Coarse Logical Forceful Clear-thinking Inventive Independent Active Robust Unemotional Stern Progressive Wise Courageous Daring Ambitious Rational Hardhearted Determined Disorderly Realistic Psychology 305

19. Traits Consensually Associated with Women Charming Fearful Weak Sensitive Gentle Curious Emotional Mild Sexy Shy Pleasant Talkative Anxious Submissive Affectionate Attractive Dependent Affected Meek Kind Softhearted Sentimental Superstitious Dreamy Psychology 305

20. These trait lists were examined in an effort to identify their underlying dimensions. Three dimensions were identified: 1. Positivity: In general, men were viewed more positively than women. 2. Activity: In general, men were viewed as being more active than women. 3. Strength: In general, men were viewed as being stronger than women. Psychology 305

21. What methods are used to assess sex differences differences in personality? • Sex difference: The average observed difference between males and females on a given characteristic. • Sex differences in personality are typically assessed using a procedure referred to as meta-analysis. Psychology 305

22. Meta-analysis allows researchers to statistically combine the results of multiple studies. • Meta-analysis involves 2 steps: (a) An effect size or d statistic is computed for each study included in the meta-analysis. (b) The effect sizes that are obtained across the studies included in the meta-analysis are averaged to produce a mean effect size for the characteristic of interest. Psychology 305

23. The effect size obtained for a given study is computed as follows: • d = [X(males) – X(females)] / s where d = effect size. X = mean of males/females on the characteristic of interest. s = standard deviation of the entire sample (males and females combined) on the characteristic of interest. Psychology 305

24. Thus, a positive effect size indicates that males score higher than females on the characteristic of interest. • In contrast, a negative effect size indicates that females score higher than males on the characteristic of interest. • An effect size can exceed 1.00 in magnitude. Psychology 305

25. Example of the computation of effect size: • A group of researchers examined sex differences in nose length. They found that the mean nose length of males was 2.5 inches, whereas the mean nose length of females was 2.0 inches. The standard deviation for the combined sample of males and females was .6 inches. What was the effect size for nose length obtained in this study? d = [X(males) – X(females)] / s = [2.5 – 2.0] / .6 = .83 Psychology 305

26. In general, effect sizes are interpreted as follows: • An effect size of .20 or -.20 reflects a small sex difference. • An effect size of .50 or - .50 reflects a moderate sex difference. • An effect size of .80 or -.80 reflects a large sex difference. Psychology 305

27. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 1. Sex Differences in the Big 5 • In conducting research on sex differences in the Big 5, researchers have largely focused on the facets that comprise each dimension of the Big 5. • Examples of facets: Extraversion: Warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions. Agreeableness: Trust, compliance, altruism, straight forwardness, modesty, tender-mindedness. Psychology 305

28. (a) Extraversion: Three facets have been examined. Facet Effect size Gregariousness (sociable, outgoing) -.15 Assertiveness (outspoken, forceful) .50 Activity (energetic, lively) .09 Psychology 305

29. (b) Agreeableness: Two facets have been examined. Facet Effect size Trust (cooperative, forgiving) -.25 Tender-mindedness (nurturing, sympathetic) -.97 Note: Effect size for smiling is -.60 Psychology 305

30. (c) Conscientiousness: One facet has been examined. Facet Effect size Order (organized, methodical) -.13 (d) Openness to Experience: One facet has been examined. Facet Effect size Ideas (curious, inquisitive) .03 Psychology 305

31. (e) Neuroticism: Two facets have been examined. Facet Effect size Impulsiveness (spontaneous, moody) .06 Anxiety (anxious, tense) -.28 Psychology 305

32. 2. Sex Differences in Aggressiveness • Numerous studies have demonstrated that males score higher in aggressiveness than females. These studies have used a variety of measures: Type of Test Effect size Self-report measures .40 Peer-report measures .63 Fantasy measures .84 Projective measures (e.g., TAT) .86 Psychology 305

33. This sex difference appears to have profound consequences: For example, • Males commit more homicides than females (~90% of all homicides). • Males commit more non-homicidal violent crimes (e.g., assault, armed robbery) than females. Psychology 305

34. 1000 Homicide Rate by Age and Sex Males Homicide Rate (Arrests/1,000,000 Persons) 500 Females 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Age of Offender

35. 1000 Violent Crime Rate by Age and Sex Males Violent Crime Rate (Arrests/100,000 Persons) 500 Females 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Age of Offender

36. 3. Sex Differences in Emotionality • Several studies have examined sex differences in the frequency and intensity with which different emotions are experienced. • Example: Brebner, 2003 • Recruited 9067 participants from 42 countries. • Assessed the frequency and intensity with which participants experienced 4 positive and 4 negative emotions. Psychology 305

37. Effect size for Frequency Effect size for Intensity Emotion Affection -.30 -.25 Joy -.16 -.26 Contentment -.13 -.18 Pride ns ns Positive Emotions -.20 -.23 Psychology 305

38. Effect size for Frequency Effect size for Intensity Emotion Fear -.17 -.26 Sadness -.16 -.28 Anger -.05 -.14 Guilt ns -.07 Negative Emotions -.14 -.25 Psychology 305

39. These results suggest that females experience both positive and negative emotions more frequently and more intensely than males. 4. Sex Differences in Self-Esteem • Substantial research has examined sex differences in global self-esteem. • Global self-esteem: The level of regard that one has for oneself as a person (i.e., at the broadest level). Psychology 305

40. Global self-esteem is correlated with many indices of psychological health (e.g., ability to cope with stress, resiliency to negative feedback, life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, somatic symptoms). • The overall effect size for self-esteem that has emerged from research is .21 (Feingold, 1994; Kling et al., 1999). • When this sex difference is analyzed by age, an interesting pattern of results emerges: Psychology 305

41. Age Effect size 7 – 10 years .16 11 – 14 years .23 15 – 18 years .33 19 – 22 years .18 23 – 59 years .10 > 60 years -.03 • These results indicate that females experience a decrease in self-esteem during adolescence. The decrease, however, is not permanent. Psychology 305

42. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs? • Over the last several decades, there has been substantial controversy among researchers as to the nature of masculinity and femininity. • In the 1930s, researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity are best viewed as a single dimension: High Masculinity High Femininity Psychology 305

43. However, in the 1970s, with the rise of the feminist movement, researchers began to question the assumption of a single masculinity-femininity dimension. • These researchers came to believe that masculinity and femininity form independent dimensions: Psychology 305

44. High Femininity Androgynous Stereotypically Feminine Low Masculinity High Masculinity Stereotypically Masculine Undifferentiated Low Femininity Psychology 305

45. These researchers argued that the androgynous individual is more “highly developed” than the stereotypically masculine, stereotypically feminine, or undifferentiated individual. • Although the 2-D model gained substantial popularity, it was criticized by some researchers: Psychology 305

46. (a) Some researchers argued that masculinity and femininity are multifaceted constructs and, therefore, cannot be represented dimensionally. (b) Other researchers noted that people rarely score high on both masculinity and femininity or low on both masculinity and femininity. Rather, the vast majority of people are high on one and low on the other (i.e., are stereotypically masculine or feminine). Psychology 305

47. In light of such criticisms, a number of researchers who adopted the 2-D model later revised their thinking. • For example, in 1974, Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex Role Inventory to assess masculinity and femininity in accordance with the 2-D model. However, in light of the criticisms of this model, she revised her thinking, ultimately arguing that her inventory assesses how “gender schematic” an individual is. Psychology 305

48. An individual who is highly gender schematic regulates his or her own attitudes and behaviour in accordance with common stereotypes regarding males and females. • According to Bem’s new conceptualization, the ideal is not to be androgynous but to be gender aschematic. Psychology 305

49. Questions That Were Answered In Today’s Lecture Intelligence, continued 3. What are the primary criticisms of the dominant view of intelligence? • Sex Differences in Personality • What stereotypes exist regarding sex differences in personality? • What methods are used to assess sex differences in personality? Psychology 305

50. Sex Differences in Personality, continued 3. What sex differences in personality have consistently emerged from research? 4. Are “masculinity” and “femininity” independent constructs? Psychology 305