World War I and the Crisis of the European Order

1. World War I and the Crisis of the European Order

2. Introduction • During WWI the great colonial empires of Europe made increasing demands on their colonies which led to protests and nationalist movements • Example-Egypt and the British: British were surprised by the mass Egyptian protests from 1919-1922. The British thought the Egyptians were passive and they didn’t pick up on the signs of oncoming revolts! • Egyptians were upset over many issues including: British confiscation of Egyptians draft animals, rising prices of everything, outstretched food supplies, increasing demands on female labor in factories, increased labor demands in sweatshops and fields, meager wages, demands on Egyptian men as bearers, animal tenders, and etc during the war. • British focused heavily upon Egypt b/c of its proximity to Turkey and Germany and of course the importance of the Suez Canal in connecting all of the British empire for soldiers, laborers, raw materials, loans, and donations. • Egyptian women, especially from the lower classes were very active in protests and were aggressively taking part in bombings and facing police and armed forces. -Shafika Muhammad (F) killed by British in an unarmed demonstrations • It is important to understand that imperialism turned WWI into a global war reaching far corners of the world and have long lasting effects

4. Coming War: Long March to War • Germany had been working for economic supremacy before it even became a unified state. Germany quickly became highly industrialized which was reflected in its many RRs and supremacy over metals. As you can imagine this worried many of its European neighbors. Germany and Russia did have an alliance (Reinsurance Treaty) however because of German’s support of Austria at the expense of Russia that treaty lapsed and European peace was threatened. Russia turned to France and Britain for alliances (idea was a two-front war if Germany declared war on any of its neighbors). • Additionally, France was just as worried as Russia. Its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 made it lose the territories of Alsace and Lorraine and it looked as if the German’s were eyeing even more French land! The British joined the Triple Entente over the threat of the German growing navy and army! • When Kaiser Wilhelm II of German came to power so also did another alliance system-Triple Alliance known as the Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Italy did have a major problem with Austria because Austria still had some Italian lands under its control which meant that Italy’s role in the alliance could change. In fact in 1915 Italy switched sides and joined the Triple Entente!

5. Leading up to war • The various powers in Europe had been a part of imperial building and had competing rivalries. These tensions increased as fewer and fewer lands were available for colonization. • Nationalism (jingoism) also grew leading to hatred for others • Morocco crisis-France annexed Morocco to its other N. African colonies and Germany threatened war if the French advancement continued…not supported by other powers. In 1911 Germany again threatened and the French had to give Germany some lands in central Africa to avoid conflict! • The great powers wanted lands and also didn’t want to see anyone else gain lands at their expense • Great arms race-imperial powers race for arms, army, and navy! Germany navy threatened the British navy’s supremacy • Armies grew in size, firepower, and began to practice. With all this technology and large standing well-equipped militaries politicians felt confident in war and felt if one came it would be short. • Additionally, many of these industrialized European powers had many problems at home: labor strikes and protests. Conflict between European states would be a very nice way to distract its people from their social problems and provide employment.

6. Outbreak of War • Russia wanted a warm water port and supported nationalist ambitions in the Balkans against the Turks and Austria. Russia supported Serbs against Austria. • A Serbian nationalist, Gavriel Princip, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in 1914. The couple was in Sarajevo, Bosnia (under Austrian control) for a speech. The Austrian government was very angry and looked to make Serbs pay. Austria also looked to Germany’s supported which it famously gave Austria a “blank check”. This led to Austria giving Serbia an very harsh ultimatum which the Serbs couldn’t totally give into (which Austria understood…they wanted war to end once and for all Serbian challenges) • Russia declared its supported for Serbia and the alliance systems were quickly drawn into this small conflict! • Inept diplomacy, tensions over decades, and the enviable sense of war led to war • Germany devised a plan in case of war since it knew it would be fighting a two-front war: Schlieffen Plan 1905-attack France first and then fight off the slower Russia. • British joined war to defend Belgium which was neutral and Germany attacked to launch its attack in France. • With these major powers came their colonies and even Japan’s support (Canada, Austria, India, African nations, and even New Zealand all found themselves part of the action)

7. Russia’s main plan of defense was to mobilize troops prior to war-due to the poor RR system they would not be able to mobilize troops as quickly as Germany Began mobilizing troops towards Germany French Plan XVII: concentration of troops in one specific area: Lorraine and Alsace However, left Paris exposed and the heartland of France exposed to a northern attack Russia and France

8. Germany should concentrate on France, swiftly attacking north through neutral states After France was taken over then they could concentrate on the Eastern front against Russia The Schlieffen Plan

9. A group of seven men, including a teacher, all under 28 years sought to kill Archduke Ferdinand Ferdinand was not personally an oppressor to their people and had tried to play the role of friend. Serbs and Croats in Austria’s southern provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina actually lived well due to the dual monarchy. The assassins didn’t desire to bring an end to the dual monarchy, but rather to create a bigger and better sun for Serbia. Wanted an independent Serbian State Prewar Austria-Hungary was run by two strong races the Germans and Magyars. There were Slav minorities in both countries including Czechs and Slovaks north and Serbs and Croats south. The Hapsburgs (feudal German overlords) had difficulties with the largest bloc, the Hungarians. In order to offset the power of the Hungarians they favored certain Slav subjects. Ferdinand was a champion of this policy.

10. Because Ferdinand married a northern Slav he falsely thought that he had extra respect with southern Slavs. People of Serbia view Ferdinand as a threat because he advocated “trialism” or triple reorganization of the empire in place of the existing “Dualism” Ferdinand thought that by giving Serbs an equal voice against the Germans and Magyars he could create a better empire. Why would the Serbs not like this plan??? The Serbs had problems with this plan because it essentially doomed Serbia from ever become a great, independent state. To Serbian nationalists Franz Ferdinand had become the most serious threat to a Greater Serbia. Much of the plotting and scheming for the assassination took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina

11. Bosnia and Herzegovina (Serb and Croat) had been controlled by Vienna (Austria) since 1878, when the Turks had been expelled but remained officially Turkish until 1908 when they were annexed to the Dual Monarchy. This action outraged many Serbians. The southern provinces became a breeding ground for subversion and anti-Hapsburg ideas. The assassins were not what you would think assassins should be, but they did have one thing in common all were suffering from tuberculosis. Some of the assassins like Mohammed Mehmedbasic froze and allowed the motorcade with Ferdinand to pass. Others like Nedjelko Cabrinovic missed. The mistake was a wrong turn taken by the car onto Francis Joseph Street where the driver stopped. This put Princip within five feet of Ferdinand. He fired two shots. One hit Ferdinand in the neck and the second struck Sophie in the abdomen.

12. Mehmedbasic threw a bomb, but missed Ferdinand. He did injury others that were taken to the hospital. He then took his cyanide tablet and dove into the river (the cyanide tablet didn’t work and only made him sick while the river (Miljacka) was just a few inches deep). Ferdinand upon arriving at his speech destination was angry and stated “one comes here for a visit and is received with bombs” The Mayor didn’t understand him and they continued with the speech After the speech Ferdinand wired home that they were both fine. He decided he should visit bomb victims. They thought another attack was unlikely. He didn’t want Sophie to go, but she insisted. On their way to the hospital they took a wrong turn onto Francis Joseph Street and this is were the attack occurred!

13. Ferdinand’s dying words “Es ist nichts” (it is nothing). This was the couples 14th anniversary Princip then turned his pistol on himself, but the crowd knocked it away. He then turned to his cyanide capsule, which only made him vomit. Princip and Cabrinovic remained alive. Emperor Francis Joseph heard of the news of the death of his nephew and thought to himself how careless Ferdinand had been and felt the Hapsburgs had gained something through the elimination of Ferdinand “A higher power has restored that order which unfortunately I was unable to maintain” Emperor Francis Joseph had never approved of his nephew’s choice in a wife. Sophie was a noble but from an obscure Czech family. Emperor Francis Joseph was so offended by this choice of a mate beneath his station that the they argued over the marriage for 1 year. When the emperor consented, Francis Ferdinand was forced to renounce the rights of succession and rank for his children, taking Sophie as a morganatic wife. Initially many countries were shocked, but not provoked by the incident

14. Sophie wasn’t permitted to ride in the royal carriage with her husband due to her station and was snubbed all over Vienna by the royals. Ferdinand wanted Sophie to experience being treated like a royal on their 14th wedding anniversary so he took her to Sarajevo b/c in that company she would be treated as such. They rode together in the second car on the parade route. • Unfortunately for everyone the assassins cyanide capsules didn’t work and they lived. “In this way the pistol and poison failed both the killer and the world” S.L.A. Marshall • They killers could talk now! If they had died there may not have been any case made against Serbia

15. On July 23, 1914 Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum, which was deliberately harsh End to anti-Austrian activity and to allow Austrians to conduct an investigations in their country Serbia agreed to most demands, but offered to have several others settled by an international conference July 28 refused Serbia’s offer and declared war Assassination at Sarajevo

16. July 28 (same day) Russia also took action and began mobilizing troops toward the Austrian border WW1 had now begun Austria-Hungary and Russia pulled in their allies Germany declared war on Russia-Aug. 1 and France-Aug. 3 France (mobilization) on July 30 Great Britain on Aug. 4 after Germany attacked neutral states Italy-outside of the conflict Austrian-Serbian war became a European wide conflict within a month Assassination at Sarajevo

17. Trenches ran from the English Channel to Swiss border Machine guns, poison gas, and heavy artillery made short work of infantry Tanks, flame throwers, poison gas, and barbed wire World War I

18. World War I

20. Schlieffen Plan had been dedicated to the principle that France could be swiftly eliminated First Battle of the Marne: Sept. 6-10, 1914—Allies were ready to attack weakened German troops On Aug. 2 Germany demanded free passage for her troops via Belgium (12 hrs). Germany had secret information that France was going to invade. If Belgium didn’t remain neutral and allow passage, Germany would see her as an enemy Belgium asked Britain for help and appealed to King George V. Grey repeated a line from Gladstone “Could this country stand by and witness the direst crime that ever stained the pages of history and thus become participators in the crime?” Britain gave Germany an ultimatum: halt the invasion of Belgium or be at war with Britain by midnight By midnight on Aug. 4th the British were at war Counterattacks by British and French forces halted the German advance at the Marne River forced to drop back Allies victorious-strategic victory because allies resisted German advance German Offensive

21. Germany was now forced to fight a two-front war: western (France) and eastern (Russia) Eastern front wasn’t limited to trench warfare due to large border Tannenberg Forest-1914: Russians suffered huge loss Masurian Lakes-1914: last great Russian campaign-almost took out the Austria as a military power Germany forced to draw 8 divisions out of Italy, 12 from the Western front-providing relief for Verdun and Somme Then the Germans under Ludendorff assumed power over the Austrian military Enjoyed success along southern front against Austria until Germans pushed them back (Limanowa) Russians suffered incredible losses (2 million)! Support for the war and government began to wane War on the Eastern Front

22. World War I

23. By 1916 Russia’s war effort was near collapse Russia wasn’t industrialized and as a result they continually had shortages on food, guns, ammunition, clothing, boots, and blankets Moreover, the Allies were unable to ship supplies to Russian ports because the German fleet blocked the Baltic Sea and in the south the Ottomans controlled the Mediterranean and the Black Sea War on the Eastern Front

24. Russian army had only one asset: its numbers Throughout the war the Russian army suffered enormous battlefield losses 2 million were killed, wounded, or captured in 1915 alone Yet the army continually rebuilt its ranks from the country’s enormous population For more than 3 yrs they diverted Germany’s full out assault in the west War on the Eastern Front

26. By March 1917 civil unrest due to food and fuel shortages brought government to brink of collapse Czar Nicholas, faced with revolution, abdicated his throne on March 15 Provisional government was established-pledged to continue fighting war However, war-weary Russian army refused to fight any longer Nov. 1917- second revolution: Communist leader Vladimir Lenin seized power-insisted upon ending Russia’s involvement in the war March 1918: truce: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (lost lands) War on the Eastern Front

27. Now, the German military was free to transfer most of the eastern forces to the western front 1916 Verdun: small fortress in northeast France-German’s attacked. Wanted “to bleed the French white by virtue of our superiority in guns” French held their position ten horrifying months There was no real winners that emerged from the battle Causalities were high-700,000 dead War on the Western Front

28. 1916 Somme: 7 mile advance-were successful, but at a total cost of 1 million lives Champagne 1917: French defeat Passchendaele offensive 1917 very limited success Realized “going over the top” in offensives wasn’t working Basically there was a stalemate on the western front…Allies attempted to open up new fronts War on the Western Front

29. Feb. 1915: Allies attacked Ottomans in the area of the Dardanelles-led to capital Constantinople If they could take Dardanelles they could supply Russians Known as the Gallipoli (Gaa-lip-O-lee) campaign By May turned into another stalemate In Dec. Allies gave up campaign and evacuated Despite Gallipoli, Allies were still determined to defeat the Ottomans Ottoman Empire

31. Allied armies took Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus In Southwest Asia, the British helped Arab nationalists rise up against their Turkish rulers Asia and Africa: German colonial possessions came under assault -Japan British recruited subjects of German colonies-independence Naval Battles: 1916 Jutland in the North Sea-no real winner Unrestricted submarine warfare: proved to be German's most effect naval weapon-attacked Allied and neutral ships 1915 sank Lusitania (British passenger ship) 1917: sank 3 American ships Ottomans/ Germans

32. War in Europe • War really did turn into a stalemate on the Western Front. Germany attacked Belgium which surprisingly fought back and slowed down the giant. While the French fight violently to hold onto their nation plus the British entered the picture to help push the German’s back! The British arrived when the German troops were tired and not well supplied b/c they were away from RRs. • The Western Front developed a unique style: trench warfare-built down in order to protect themselves against on another’s technology (firepower, machine guns, artillery). This only further compounded the stalemate. • Western Front was turned into a killing grounds with millions of men losing their lives for little more than a regional conflict in the Balkans? (machine guns, artillery, barbed-wire, poison gas). • Trenches provided some shelter from the hellish conditions of industrialized war, but by no means was a picnic! The trenches were filled with rats and lice. The rats would eat on the corpses of the dead and the soldiers tried anything to keep them at bay. • Older generals from another time period did not understand war in the Industrial age and kept using tactics that were basically suicidal.

33. War in the East • Russia surprised the Germans by launching offenses quicker than they thought. This made the Germans reorganize and divert troops to the Eastern Front too. The Germans virtually destroyed Russian armies and the Russians had devastating losses to Germans (not Austrians though). • Russian suffered highest level of casualties of any of the states involved • Aristocratic generals led millions of unprepared/ un-supplied peasants to their certain deaths! Tsar Nicholas II moved to the front itself to lead the war effort. Russians angry before the war saw millions of the son of the peasant classes dying needlessly. This provided even more ammunition for the Russian protests and revolts. • Austria-Hungarian forces proved more equal with Russia and Russia did defeat them many times, but the Austrian would ask for help from Germany and they would send troops and equipments which tipped the balance in favor of Austria. • Austria was quite successful against Italy though (Italy entered war in 1915). Entered war on promised of land gains from the British. The Italians lost offensive after offensive and had to be reinforced with French and British troops from the Western Front to halt Austrian success (opposite of what was supposed to happen). Many Italian troops deserted out of hopelessness. One Italian soldier wounded at the front who would soon change Italian history and be a key figure in WWII was Benito Mussolini.

34. The Home Fronts in Europe • Soldiers grew angry at political leaders who urged them to continue fighting the war and civilians who supported it and didn’t understand the horrors and the true price of warfare. • At home governments dealt with needs of the front through rationing and the government also ran certain sectors like the RRs (Total War) • The governments also censored media and put down dissent • Developed propaganda departments-so good that the Germans didn’t even realize that they were on the course to losing and thought their defeat was sudden due to gov. censorship! • Angry people with the war-led to labor protest and in Russia the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917! • Women also participated heavily in war being nurses on the front to producing much needed goods in factories. Women challenged traditional gender roles during the war and afterwards demanded more rights and liberties. However, when the men returned home women lost their jobs and many times the government tried to force them back to the home.

35. War Outside Europe • Because colonies were used for raw materials of people and materials they soon were drawn into the conflict. Fighting spread to the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. • 1917 US entered the war-Triple Entente • British maintained a naval blockade over the Germans. They were superior at sea and cut off the Central Powers from their colonies and their supplies! At the same time because of the sheer empire of the British much of the world came into the war. • 1902 the British made a naval compact with Japan. Japan then attacked German colonies in China and the Pacific…which allowed them to expand their imperialistic goals and eventually led to their dominance over Asia in WWII! • British White Dominions quickly sent supplies (including men). These soldiers were active in the Middle East and the famous Gallipoli Campaign (1915-Australian forces), and the Western Front. Some colonial areas had been promised freedom in return for their help during the war. • From tropical dependencies (non settler ) colonies many soldiers and supplies. Germans lost many colonies, but in German East Africa they had a superbly led African soldiers who fought the British 2 weeks after the end of fighting in Europe! • The Turks entered the war in 1915 on side of Germany. They fought in of course the Gallipoli Campaign, Middle East, as well as Russia. They had severe losses to Russia and turned blamed to the Christian Armenian minority (spanned both empires). Some Armenians did back Russia b/c of earlier pogroms against them by the Turks, but most was loyal or neutral. Turks lost because of poor planning but blamed the Armenians and in 1915 launched an attack…the Armenian genocide killed millions and caused many to leave to Middle East and Russia.

36. War Outside Europe • US initially didn’t really care about entering the war and most Americans felt it was a European conflict. The US sold many industrialized and raw materials to the Triple Entente (alliance) and began giving loans too. They soon transitioned from the debtor to creditor and WWI turned US into an international powerhouse. • Blunders of the Germans that brought US into the war: unrestricted submarine warfare (Zimmerman Note) • US joined war in April of 1917

37. Endgame • It did appear that the Germans were going to win the war. They had defeated British armies and the French were in a retreat while Russia pulled out of the war in a revolution! However, the war on the Western Front once again turned into a stalemate with new weapons and increasing American troops. • Austria-Hungary broke down and fragmented along national lines –separate republics of Austria and Hungary • Germany agreed to a armistice November 11, 1918 and the public was surprised by its “sudden” loss and many accepted the myth that the country had been betrayed by socialists and Jewish politicians –”stab-in-the-back theory”. Many soldiers and citizens were horrified by the peace agreement and felt angry. Mixed in with post-war economic conditions it was a breeding ground for discontent and political change allowing disgruntled soldiers like Adolf Hitler and the Nazis to gain power. • 10 million died, 20 million wounded (society not quite prepared for), billions of dollars of economic loss, destruction of cities, transportation routes, and farmlands led to even more economic losses PLUS an influenza pandemic (killed about another 50 million people worldwide).

38. Victory 1918 Nov. 9, 1918 Kaiser Wilhelm II (G) was forced to step down Germany declared itself a republic and a representative from the new German government met with Allies Signed an armistice or agreement to stop fighting Nov. 11, 1918 WWI came to an end Now turned toward peace settlement

39. Settling the Peace Woodrow Wilson-US Georges Clemenceau-France David Lloyd George-Great Britain Wilson: 14 Points (liberal) 1-5 included end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, trade, and reduction in national armies/ navies 6-13 suggestions for changing borders and creating new nations-self determination 14-proposed a general association of nations- League of Nations France/ Britain showed little sign of agreeing with Wilson-concerned with national security

40. Settling the Peace France also wanted to punish Germany Conference of Paris began in January 1919 and the treaty of Versailles was signed June 28, 1919 “diktat” –dictated peace (5 yrs to the day after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo) League of Nations-keep peace (Germany and Russia excluded) Punished Germany-”war guilt” clause (place sole responsibility for the war on Germany and they had to pay reparations to the Allies) Germans nor Russians not ask to Versailles to take part in the treaty

41. Settling the Peace Germany had to return Alsace-Lorraine to France French border was extended to the west bank of the Rhine river Germany surrendered all of its overseas colonies in Africa and the Pacific Limited the size of the German military Prohibited from importing or manufacturing weapons/ subs Germany force to pay Allies $33 billion in reparations over 30 years Promises to Arabs not kept and France and Britain divided up the Middle East  Japan targeted China Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) ask for conference with Wilson, who refused!

42. Eastern Europe was most change by peace treaties ending WWI Treaties created new states to act as buffer states. They were to stop the spread of communism and German power New states: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia Old states winning independence: Finland and Poland Austria-Hungary separated New Nation-States

44. New states were ethnically diverse Ethnic unrest stemmed from minority groups ruling or being left out of the political process Many economic problems: no agricultural revolution and borders did not make economic sense Border disputes were common among many of these states Poland and Russia actually fought a land dispute in 1920 States characterized by low productivity, unemployment, and overpopulation New states were weak and unstable New Nation-States

45. Failure of Treaty War Guilt Clause Exclusion of Russia Refusal of the U.S. Congress to endorse all aspects of the treaty Growing desire for isolationism in Great Britain Going back on promised to Arabs

46. Nationalist Assaults During the war the European states used their colonies on the Fronts (African and Asia soldiers ended up on the Western Front) and they fed raw materials and goods to the nations. Britain even expanded the industrial sector in India to feed its war needs African and Asians were ordered in the millions to fight against and kill Europeans…suddenly the divisions between European were revealed. Officers abroad were called back and the posts had to be filled with locals. Additionally, many promises such as independence were made to groups (Arabs). But they interfered with their powers postwar expansion plans. Fueled new group of political and intellectual leaders that were anti-colony that had started prior to the war, but the war helped to make the movements very large and justified them.

47. India: Challenge to British Raj Asia colonized prior to Africa so independence movements naturally started here 1st India and Egypt provided examples 1885 National Congress party of India-composed of educated Indians. Originally only intended to made known the opinions of Indians and thought to protect against independence movements…wrong…they ended up leading the way to independence in India and governed through most of the early years of independence. Early on few members and elite centered concerns with many loyal individuals to the British. Felt the British government was racist towards Indians and kept them down (limited opportunities and poor pay) In the National Congress party they started discussing problems and found out they were similar than they thought. A common Indian identity began to form!

48. Social Foundations of Movement National Congress Party soon expanded their efforts to include more segments of society and found many common complaints Business men quickly started backing the party due to unfair trade policies given by the British to British investors over Indian ones! Indian politicians discussed inequities of British and how they were draining the Indian people of their resources. Plus Indians were forced to pay for wars outside of India as well as fat salaries of local British administrators. British saw India and export economy and kept them from industrializing and competing with British manufactured products (RRs) British also pushed for production of cash crops at the expense of food which resulted in regional famines across India. The government did little to help fix.

49. Rise of Militant Nationalism B.G. Tilak –early Indian nationalist (prior to WWI): religious oriented cause along Hinduism (protect cows, no women’s ed. Etc.) He wanted Indians to quite the British Raj administration and military and to boycott British manufactured goods. He advocated independence and was willing to use violence to attain it. Not everyone liked his extreme ideas and the British connected him back to dangerous writing so they exiled him to Burma for 6 years –pretty much squashing the movement. Hindu communalists-violent break with British (pre WWI), but they were secret (clandestine). Terrorist movement-taught physical fitness, firearm use, and bomb making. British crushed all revolts. Well educated Indian lawyers soon led the war: Gandhi, Jinnah, and Nehru 1908 Morley-Minto Reforms-expanded Indian rights

50. Emergence of Gandhi • India was the most important tropical dependency of the British during the war supplying them: loans, raw materials, manufactured goods, and soldiers. As war dragged on more people of India started to break under the weight of obligation and nationalist movements became popular • Inflation happened driving prices upward and wages and value of money downward. Result was peasant unrest and even famines! • British promised movement towards Indian independence if they continued to help during the war -Montagu-Chelmsford reforms 1919-more Indians involved in government  -Rowlatt Act-1919 (after montagu reforms)-went back and placed severe restrictions on Indian civil rights like freedom of the press  • After the war the British refused to honor wartime promises only further exacerbating the issue