Elements of qualitative data analysis

1. Elements of qualitative data analysis Graham R Gibbs

2. Contents • Books • Online resources • Philosophy • Data preparation • Coding • Narrative • Charts and tables • CAQDAS

3. Books • Gibbs, G.R. (2007) Analyzing Qualitative Data. London: Sage. • Bernard, H. R., & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. Los Angeles, [Calif.]; London: SAGE. • Flick, U. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research. Los Angeles, [Calif.]; London: SAGE. • Flick, U. (2013). The SAGE handbook of qualitative data analysis. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. The tables in this video are taken from this edition, but there is a new edition: • Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M. & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: a sourcebook of new methods. 3rd Ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. • Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., McNaughton Nicholls, C and Ormston, R (eds) (2013) Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers. London: Sage.

4. Online resources • OnlineQDA • http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk • My YouTube Channel • Graham R Gibbs: https://www.youtube.com/user/GrahamRGibbs •  MSc Applied Educational and Social Research @ Strathclyde. • http://www.strath.ac.uk/aer/materials/ • QSR for NVivo • http://www.qsrinternational.com/ • NCRM • http://www.ncrm.ac.uk/

5. Philosophy Realist – Critical Realist – Constructivist – Relativist Induction – Deduction - Abduction

6. Data preparation…

7. Transcription: Who should do it? • Self • Audio typist • Dictation/speech recognition software

8. Self • Tedious but good because it begins data analysis • Careful reading of whole transcript produces new ideas etc. • May have no choice if text in a language few others can understand.

9. Software • Dictation/speech recognition software • Still not good enough to transcribe voice from tape or digital recording • Because needs v. good quality sound AND learns your own accent as you use it. • IBM Via Voice or Dragon Dictate • Can listen to tape and then dictate to computer. Still at best only 95% accurate. • Transcription software • E.g. Express Scribe, F4/F5 Transribe.

10. Prepare text • Anonymise • Maybe easier if this is delayed • Check for accuracy • Member checking (with respondents)? • Use […] for missing text • Use [bribery?] for words you are not sure about.

11. Levels of transcription • People don’t speak in sentences • Repeat themselves • Hesitate, stutter • Use contractions (don’t, coz, etc) • Use filler words (like, y’know, er, I mean) • Options • Just the gist • Verbatim • Verbatim with dialect • Discourse level.

12. Just the gist “90% of my communication is with … the Sales Director. 1% of his communication is with me. I try to be one step ahead, I get things ready, … because he jumps from one … project to another. …This morning we did Essex, this afternoon we did BT, and we haven't even finished Essex yet.”(… indicates omitted speech)

13. Verbatim “I don’t really know. I’ve a feeling that they’re allowed to let their emotions show better. I think bereavement is part of their religion and culture. They tend to be more religious anyway. I’m not from a religious family, so I don’t know that side of it.”

14. Verbatim with dialect “‘s just that – one o’ staff – they wind everybody up, I mean, – cos I asked for some money – out o’ the safe, cos they only keep money in the safe – ’s our money – so I asked for some money and they wouldn’t give it me – an’ I snatched this tenner what was mine.”

15. Conversation analysis Bashir: Did you ever (.) personally assist him with the writing of his book. (0.8) Princess: A lot of people.hhh ((clears throat)) saw the distress that my life was in. (.) And they felt it was a supportive thing to help (0.2) in the way that they did.

16. Start analysis…

17. Coding/indexing/categorizing N.B. confusion because used in quantitative data where it means putting numbers to answers. “indexing”“categories”“codes”“themes” = linking chunks of data (text) as representative of the same phenomenon. Not necessarily to count them (cf. Content analysis)

18. Analysis. Bryman suggests these stages Stage 1 Read the text as a whole, Make notes at the end Look for what it is about Major themes Unusual issues, events etc Group cases into types or categories (may reflect research question – e.g. male and female)

19. Stage 2. Read again Mark the text (underline, circle, highlight) Marginal notes/ annotations Labels for codes Highlight Key words Note any analytic ideas suggested.

20. Stage 3. Code the text Systematically mark the text Indicate what chunks of text are about – themes – Index them. Review the codes. Eliminate repetition and similar codes (combine) Think of groupings May have lots of different codes (Don’t worry at early stage – can be reduced later)

21. Stage 4. Relate general theoretical ideas to the text. Coding is only part of analysis You must add your interpretation. Identify significance for respondents Interconnections between codes Relation of codes to research question and research literature.

22. Thematic Coding Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss + Corbin + Charmaz) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Jonathon Smith) Template analysis (Nigel King) Framework analysis (Ritchie and Lewis) All are types of thematic analysis.

23. How is coding done? Age contrast Residence focus Young find work easily Word of mouth Contrast situation Constrained

24. Questions to ask Look for the gerunds – the doing… "What is going on? What are people doing? What is the person saying? What do these actions and statements take for granted? How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements?" (Charmaz 2003: 94-95)

25. What can codes be about? Lofland suggests: • Acts – usually brief events • Activities – of longer duration in a setting, people involved • Meanings – what directs participants’ actions? • What concepts they use to understand their world • What meaning or significance it has for them. • Participation – People’ involvement or adaptation to a setting • Relationships – between people, considered simultaneously • Settings – the entire context of the events under study

26. What can codes be about? 2 Strauss suggests Conditions Interactions Strategies and tactics Consequences What happens if…

27. Ways to identify themes Ryan and Bernard (2003) • Repetitions • Indigenous typologies (in vivo) • Metaphors and analogies • Transitions (pauses, sections) • Similarities and Differences • Constant comparison • Linguistic connectors • Because, before, after, next, closeness, examples • Missing data (what is omitted)

28. Coding supports 2 forms of analysis Retrieval Using the coding frame

29. 1. Retrieval Retrieve all the text coded with the same label = all passages about the same phenomenon, idea, explanation or activity - Literally cut and paste Used envelopes/files - Now done using software Enables cross case comparison on same theme.

30. 2. Developing the coding frame • Use the list of codes to examine further kinds of analytic questions, e.g. • relationships between the codes (and the text they code) • Code dimensions • grouping cases

31. Data driven or concept driven? Inductive or deductive Most qualitative analysis does both i.e. start with some theoretical ideas these derived from literature, research brief/questions, interview schedule and discover new ideas, theories, explanations in the data. Strauss - sociologically constructed codes vs. in vivo codes

32. Description to analytic ‘Dancing’, ‘Indoor bowling’, ‘Dances at works club’, ‘Drive together’ Descriptive codes ‘Joint activities ceased’, ‘Joint activities continuing’ Categories ‘Loss of physical co-ordination’, ‘Togetherness’, ‘Doing for’, ‘Resignation’, ‘Core activity’ Analytic codes

33. Example code hierarchy • Friendship types • Close, generalized • Sporting • Club • Non-club • Work • Changes in Friendship • Making new friends • New same sex friends • New different sex friends • Losing touch • Becoming sexual relationships

34. Example showing analysis One of a set of interviews by Wendy Hollway and Tony Jefferson. On fear of crime Will use some of this for a group work exercise. Part of interview with: Barbara 65, F, White,Retired nursing auxiliary, Interview covered, Husband's death, ill health, sister - prison, stealing & drug taking, tenants association. From low crime area.

35. INT So you say - well 2 of those things happened after - when you've been talking to this accountant friend of yours. How did it come up? I mean that's er, you'd been alone for quite a while .... BARBARA They'd been burgled. INT Right. BARBARA And they got through a little window like this. Actually 'e'd got a young lad with 'im. And er, Margaret's engagement ring and she says "that was the one thing - that was the one thing, it grieved me more than anything" she said. "They could 'ave the television, the lot" she said. But the fact that they took 'er engagement ring… INT Yeah. BARBARA That upset 'er. And er, we were just talking in general and - and it came up and I says er, "I've got a chain on my door." And 'e says er, "it's not strong enough that, Barbara." He says "you really want something else on" and 'e went - his daughter lived up Stokebridge and 'e went to a little shop up there, or something. And got me that chain…

36. BARBARA …And 'e put it on and you can lock it. If you put it on as you're going out, er, its 'ook, and then you 'ave to unlock it to let it drop. INT Ah ha. BARBARA When you come in. INT Oh right. BARBARA You know, you can push the door and it - oh and it is strong as well. INT Ah ha. And the 4 locks on the back? Do they date back further? BARBARA Oh God, yeah. INT So you had lots of security even when your husband was alive? BARBARA Oh yeah, mmm. Mmm. Em, I've got one of those dead locks at the top. INT Yeah. BARBARA You know, they're just a hole in the door and they're not from outside, they're only from inside. And even that locks wrong way. You 'ave to turn it that way to unlock it. (laugh).

37. Notice Interviewer and respondent names are in capitals Wide margins and space and a half between lines Use of contractions Place names and people’s names anonymised

38. Read through About neighbour being burgled Lost TV etc. and engagement ring Old and new security on front door. Replaced by friend.

39. Mark up text Annotations and codes.

42. Coding Frame • Crime experienced (the type of crime participants discuss having experienced themselves or by their friends and neighbours). • Burglary • Vandalism • Violence • But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g. • Low level (not reported etc.) • Significant (with emotional impact)

43. Coding Frame, cont. • Security measures (What measures people have taken to protect themselves, their property etc. both in the past and more recently). • Chain • Dead lock • Burglar alarm • Safe • Car alarms • Personal Alarm • Stay in • Walk with others

44. Coding Frame, cont. • But these descriptive. Be analytic. E.g. • Physical, technology • Behavioural • Psychological (lights on timer etc.)

45. Coding Frame, cont. • Feelings about experience of crime • Frightened • Hurt by loss (especially personal items)

46. Descriptive vs Analytic/theoretical • Descriptive • Just what the people said • What happened • Their terms • Analytic • Use social science theory • Groups codes together • Use terms the respondents don’t or wouldn’t

47. Narrative…

48. Narrative, Life History and Biography Story and narrative = the way that social actors produce, represent and contexualize their experience and personal knowledge. How they make sense of what happened. • Narrative is the wide, general term. • Story restricted to genre that recounts protagonists, events, complications and consequences. • Data can come from interviews, biography, autobiography, life history interview, personal letters, diaries etc.

49. Three Theorists • Norman Denzin • Narrative as a story of a sequence of events with significance for narrator and audience. • Story has beginning, middle and end and a logic. Narratives are temporal = have a causal sequence. • Catherine Kohler Riessman (1993) Elliot Mishler (1986) • During research interviews, respondents often include lengthy stories.

50. Four types of narrative/life history. • Lieblich et al (1998)