Events Leading Up to World War II: A Study of Interwar Conflicts

1. Toward World War II

2. Some questions: • A separate conflict or part of a 31 year conflict? • Was World War II avoidable?

3. Collective Security in the Interwar Period • The League of Nations: • Possibility of sanctions and collective action against aggressors • Locarno Pacts (1925) • Signatories: France, Belgium, Britain, Germany, Italy; also Poland, Czechoslovakia ) • Acceptance of Versailles frontiers • Guarantees of non-aggression • Provision for arbitration, mutual assistance • French alliances with countries surrounding Germany • Conferences among great powers • Map of Europe between the World Wars

4. Emasculation of the League • Manchurian Crisis, 1931 • Japan invades Manchuria • Withdraws from League • League takes no action • Abyssinian Crisis (1935) • Italy invades Abyssinia (Ethiopia) • Abyssinia appeals to League • League fails to act (France, courting Italy, is reluctant)

5. Remilitarization of the Rhineland,1936 • Britain condemns, but without threat of action • France protests • Matter taken to League Council, Hague tribunal – no response • France unwilling to take action • Internally divided, pre-occupied with domestic concerns • Under caretaker cabinet, pending new elections • Germany offers non-aggression pacts

6. Spanish Civil War (1936-39) • Spanish Republic (est. 1931) increasingly polarized between left and right • Right rebels as left gains ascendancy • receives assistance from Italy and Germany • Republicans receive assistance from USSR • France and Britain urge non-intervention • committee established: decisions not enforced • Effect: Italy ends up more closely aligned with Germany

7. Rome-Berlin Axis - 1936 • Italy recognizes German position in Central Europe • Germany recognizes Italy’s position in the Mediterranean • Both join in anti-Bolshevik crusade • Supplemented by German-Japanese Anti-Comintern pact

8. Emerging situation: 1936-1938 • Versailles Treaty effectively dead • Germany rearming, growing stronger • France increasingly alarmed • system of alliances more and more uncertain • Aligned with Britain, forced to follow its lead • USSR • Has previously signed treaties with Germany, 1922 • More recently with France (1934) but neither considers the other reliable

9. Britain’s position • Re-arming but reluctant to fight • Neville Chamberlain as prime minister, 1936 • Anxious to assert European leadership • Willing to recognize new power configuration • Thus accommodate `reasonable’ demands • Allow ‘adjustments’ to borders

10. Anchsluss with Austria, 1938 • Italy pre-occupied, abandons objections • Austrian Nazis undermine government • German demands bring Austrian Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart to power • Seyss-Inquart request for assistance brings German troops • Austria annexed, result endorsed in plebiscite • Other powers fail to object

11. Sudetenland and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia map • multinational state -- created by Versailles • German minority in Sudetenland (3 million out of 13 million) • Disaffected – demand autonomy, changes in gov’t policy • Increased Nazi agitation • Czech independence guaranteed by treaties with France, Russia, Yugoslavia, Romania

12. The crisis • Hitler demands self-determination for Sudetenland • Chamberlain meets with Hitler at Berchtesgaden (15 Sept. 1938), gains delay • Czech gov’t concede self-determination in exchange for British & French guarantees • Hitler increases demands at subsequent meeting at Godesberg • Immediate annexation of Sudetenland • Plebiscites in other German-speaking areas • Polish and Hungarian claims to be met • Acceptance by Sept. 28th • Czechs reject, mobilize • British and French mobilize

13. Munich Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain, Daladier meet on 29 Sept. at Mussolini’s suggestion • Agree to • German annexation of Sudetenland, Oct. 10th • Plebiscites in other minority areas • British and French to guarantee new frontiers • Czechoslovakia told to accept or fight alone

14. Chamberlain’s position • Apparent sincere desire to engage Hitler • Show that ‘legitimate’ claims could be achieved by diplomacy • Leader of a country which was • Not necessarily willing to fight for a distant land • Unready to do so

15. Problems with this: • Hitler was not a ‘reasonable’ opponent • Nor necessarily appeased • Munich agreement surrenders defensible borders • Using Slovak demands as pretext, Hitler declares that Czechoslovakia has ceased to exist • Prague invaded, March 15, 1939 • Britain declares guarantees invalid because Czechoslovakia has disintegrated

16. Outbreak of war: • In the aftermath, Britain signs treaties guaranteeing independence Poland, Romania, Greece, Turkey • Germany begins making demands on Poland (increased access across Polish corridor • Germany and USSR sign non-aggression pact • Germany makes demands on Poland • Invades, Sept. 1, 1939 on pretext of faked Polish attack • Britain and France demand withdrawal, declare war • USSR attacks Poland from the east, Sept. 17th

17. Some final considerations • Absence of effective international institutions • Absence of stable balance of power • Britain and France unable to engage USSR against Germany: • Problem of Poland • Problem of mutual mistrust • Fail to enlist Italy against Germany • Fundamental misperception of German aims by the British