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News. Bengal tigers. Early History. Game laws 1600-1700 Limited ecological appreciation or knowledge Closed seasons in New England, various species No habitat conservation Yellowstone National Park 1872 World’s first Henry David Thoreau -- Walden (1854)

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  1. News Bengal tigers

  2. Early History • Game laws 1600-1700 • Limited ecological appreciation or knowledge • Closed seasons in New England, various species • No habitat conservation • Yellowstone National Park 1872 World’s first • Henry David Thoreau -- Walden (1854) • George Perkins Marsh -- Man and Nature (1864) • 1880’s and 90’s • Biltmore Estate • Pinchot then Schenck • Cradle of Forestry • Biltmore Forest School

  3. Early History Lacey Act (1900) • Teddy Roosevelt • 26th President (1901-1909) • Pelican Island (1903) • 1930’s Leopold “science-based wildlife management” began

  4. Highlight Early Conservationist • Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946) • Forester at Biltmore Estate 1892 • Teddy Roosevelt established US Forest Service • Engineered transfer of forests from GLO in Interior to Div of Forestry w/in Agriculture 1905 • Pinchot first chief • Sustainable use • Greatest good for greatest number in the long run • Founder of Society of American Foresters • Ballinger-Pinchot controversy • Governor of PA 1920-30’s

  5. Bison Restoration • William T. Hornaday • Director New York Zoological Park 1896 • Co-founded w/ Teddy Roosevelt Am. Bison Society • Wichita Game Park • 15 Bison from NY zoo • Wood Buffalo NP, Alberta, Canada • Wood buffalo • European bison • Wisent (vi:zent) • Bialowieza Forest

  6. Bialowieza Forest

  7. Yellowstone Bison History • Established by Ulysses S. Grant 1872 • 1886 protection began in Yellowstone when US army arrived • Probably only several hundred remaining

  8. Yellowstone Bison • After restoration • No natural predators (before wolf restoration) • Over grazing • 1950’s -- 1,500 • Are nomadic, can’t be confined inside the park • Periodically reduced until 1968 • 1967 -- 397 counted • 1968 -- Population allowed to fluctuate naturally

  9. Yellowstone Bison • Births exceed deaths • Over grazing • By 1996 population reached 3,500 • Brucellosis concern (imported from Europe) • Some bison and elk infected; last refuge of Brucellosis in USA • Concern for free-ranging domestic cattle (1985 MT certified brucellosis free; ID and WY certified 2004-05) • Bison entering Montana are killed by MT Dept of Livestock; 2008 killed circa 1,200 • Wolves introduced mid-1990’s • First wolf killed bison winter 1996-97 • Today wolf diet is 90% elk, 10% a bunch of stuff including bison

  10. Yellowstone Bison Brucellosis • Bison migrate out of Park in winter and spring, whereas cattle not on the ranges until June • Transmission thru direct contact with birthing matter, but many males killed • 80% of positive field-tested, later tested negative w/ lab • Many elk w/ the disease, but not managed similarly • No documented transmission from bison to cattle in the wild • Buffalo wars

  11. Yellowstone Bison Interagency Bison Management Plan’s Objectives • IBMP 2000’s • MT responsible for bison the wander into MT • NPS responsible for keeping bison in the Park • When they move too far • Haze them back • Or capture and test for Brucellosis • Release or slaughter • Maintain free-ranging herd • Minimize brucellosis threat • Vaccinate bison • Interagency Plan

  12. Bison in US • Bison populations is USA

  13. Lead in the Environment • Biologically non-essential heavy metal element Pb • No known beneficial role in biological systems • Anthropogenic emissions • Global distribution • Lead poisoning • Anemia, neurological, kidneys, immunosuppressant, endocrine, reproduction, cancer, etc. • Hunting, fishing, shooting sports contribute Pb to the environment

  14. Anthropogenic Sources • Mining, smelting, manufacturing, lead in gas • Atmospheric deposition • Hunting, fishing, shooting sports • Contribute <3% • Lead exposure • High near mining, manufacturing, shooting ranges, permanent duck blinds in shallows

  15. Lead Availability • Lasts a long time • Availability depends on: • Substrate • Depth, texture, cultivation • Hunting and fishing pressure • Chemistry • Acidic soil/water can weather and mobilize • But biggest threat is ingestion

  16. Lead Poisoning • Lead shot from hunting waterfowl • Consume as grit gizzard (or mistaken as food) • Few pellets cause death (or are mediating factor) • Secondary poisoning • Eagles, scavengers • California condors • Vultures • Some species might be particularly sensitive

  17. Lead Poisoning • Mute swans in Britain • Forage deeper than ducks • More shot available • Lead in uplands • Doves • large numbers of doves consume a lot of shot • acute, quick death • Use levels in blood to define problem, but can’t do that because they die too quickly • Sub-lethal exposure

  18. A Tangent -- Swans (white) • Mute • Introduced from Europe, parks, only swan to breed in East • A problem on Delmarva Peninsula • Adult orange bill • Trumpeter (nearly extinct at one time, now ok) • Breeds in Alaska, winters mostly West • Black bill • Tundra (Whistling) • Breeds in tundra, winters mostly in East, Mid-west • Black bill, yellow lores

  19. Trumpeter Mute Tundra

  20. Lead Poisoning • Lead bullets • CA condors -- gut piles from hunter killed deer • Skeet and trap ranges

  21. Lead Poisoning • Fish • Ingestion not known • Amphibians and reptiles • Ingestion not known except alligators eating shot nutria • Birds • Ingest lead pellets and sinkers • Shot in muscle not generally a problem • 1-2 shot in gizzard results in 30-50% mortality in several weeks • Sub-lethal -- increased vulnerability to hunting • Acute poisoning

  22. Banning Lead Shot • Manufacturers and some hunters against • Crippling losses • Gun damage • Cost • Crippling losses less with steel • No gun damage • Ave cost per hunter < $5.00 • Shells only a very small part of total cost

  23. Banning Lead Shot • 1985 -- “hot spots” in USA • 1986 -- 5-year phase out for waterfowl • Justification (then) endangered bald eagle • 1991 lead for waterfowl banned in USA • 1999 Canada followed • 1986 lead sinkers in Britain • Mute swans • CA banned lead bullets in Condor areas in July 2008 • Non-lead bullets • Non-lead shot

  24. Lead Regulation Efficacy • Estimated 1.4 mm ducks saved • Lead poisoning mallards reduced 64% Mississippi flyway • 44% reduction in exposure in TN black ducks • Reduced lead exposure in waterfowl 50% • Lead poisoned mute swans dropped from 107 to 25, a year after sinker restrictions imposed

  25. Lead Regulation Efficacy • Eagles • Bald and golden • Reduced blood concentrations in MN and WI • But no change in frequency of lead poisoning • Gut piles of hunter-killed deer • Condors

  26. Future Regulation? • Status quo • Current regulations adequate • More restrictions • Ban smaller sinkers (< 1 oz) in some areas • NY, ME, VT banned -- loons • Canadian National Parks, Yellowstone • Some EU countries • Based on precautionary principle • Don’t need to show population-level effects • Pesticide precedents for this • Proposed national ban on lead for hunting and fishing

  27. Future Regulation? • Complete ban • Pb has no beneficial effects • Profound toxicological effects • New effects likely to be found • Effect on humans -- many years • Effects on waterfowl -- 1950-60’s • Upland birds -- 1970’s • Loons and scavengers -- 1990’s • What will be found next? • sportsmen can be self regulatory • TWS position statement

  28. Wood Duck • Migratory Bird Treaty Act 1918 • Nest boxes 1940’s • Very abundant now • Recovery • Protection • Habitat -- Beaver increase, predators down? • Adaptable (high fecundity)

  29. Wood Duck • Secondary cavity users • (primary excavate their own cavity - woodpeckers) • Nest boxes • Competition with starlings and other cavity-nesting species • Dump nesting • Lots of eggs, few fledglings • 85% nest w/ eggs from another female

  30. Dump Nesting • Intraspecific brood parasitism • Kleptoparasitism • 2.4% of birds, waterfowl highest, 26% of waterfowl • More prevalent in cavity nesters • Lays eggs in nests of its own species • Advantage to brood parasite • Avoid energy costs and risk of predation during incubation • Avoid energy costs of brood rearing • Disadvantage to brood parasite • Added costs of locating suitable nests at the right stage of egg laying • Reduced hatchability of large broods

  31. Wood Duck Nest Boxes Locate boxes more carefully • Not all boxes over water • In woods near water

  32. Wild Turkey • Restocking of locally adapted wild birds • Much more adaptable than originally thought • Spring gobblers only • Polygynous (A mating pattern in which a male mates with more than one female in a single breeding season) • Autumn hunting

  33. Mammals • Deer • Elk • Beavers • Sea otters • Eliminated the fur trade • Oil spills a threat because • Only fur to insulate from cold water, no blubber • High metabolism • Wolves • Gray and Red

  34. Mammals • Gray Wolf • 9-10,000 in USA • Alaska 6-7,000 (hunted) • MN, WI, MI about 4,000 (seesaw, sept 2009 protected) • WA, OR (showing up in 2008) • Greater Yellowstone 1,500 (hunted??) • Removed western wolves from endangered species list in 2008 • 50,000-60,000 in Canada • World-wide • Depredation -- MN population 1,400 wolves in 1986 • 230,000 cattle, 16,000 sheep • 26 cattle, 13 sheep killed (0.01%, 0.08% respectively) • 1996 10 dogs or 0.00015% were killed

  35. Yellowstone Reintroduction 2009 -- 1,650 across greater Yellowstone Region Recovery requirement -- 150 in 15 breeding pairs per state Hunting in 2009? Quotas are: 220 Idaho 75 Montana Idaho $11.50 tags -- 9,000 sold Hunters complain too many elk killed Ranchers complain too many sheep killed Environmentalists want wolves left alone.

  36. Yellowstone Reintroduction 2009 hunting season wolf killed MT 73 ID 185 Currently

  37. Yellowstone Reintroduction • Restructured the Ecosystem • Before • Elk over grazed aspen and willow • Coyotes reduced small mammals, foxes, antelope fawns • After • Aspen willow increased, more beavers, small mammals, hawks

  38. Yellowstone Reintroduction Defenders of Wildlife $100,000 fund to compensate ranchers for livestock depredation by wolves Effective?

  39. Red Wolf • Eastern wolf • Endangered 1973 • Last few captured and kept in zoo • Reintroductions • Land Between the Lakes • Alligator Refuge • Today 100 in the wild in eastern NC • Interbreeding w/ coyote most significant problem • Genetic introgression

  40. Italian Wolf (Apennine) • Apennine Mountains • Diet • Chamois, roe deer, red deer, wild boar • Parco Nationale d”Abruzzo • Parco Nationale della Majella • Mostly privately owned • Marsican Brown Bear • Italy trip

  41. Roe deer Chamois Red deer Wild boar

  42. Measures of Success? • Sustain, decrease, increase • “…songbirds are secure…little or no management.” • Really???? • Bobwhites “thrive throughout most of their ranges.” • Text is absolutely wrong • Trend map

  43. Success • What level of abundance is success? • Ducks • Historic populations were 400 mm • Current management goal is 40 mm • Population number (N) is the currency to judge management • Management requires • Biological/ecological knowledge • Social acceptance • Hunting in urban areas? • Endangered species critical habitat?

  44. Suburban Homeowners Accept Bow Hunters? • Greenwich, CT (50 mi2 township) • 50 deer/mi2 • 74% homeowners supported some method of lethal control to manage deer • At no cost, preferred birth control and trap/release • But 90+% unaware of cost or effectiveness of birth control • Of lethal methods, bow hunting preferred • Special out-of-season crossbow hunt favored by bow hunters and acceptable to homeowners

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