Psychodynamic Theories Part 2

1. Psychodynamic Theories Part 2

2. Why do we use defence mechanisms? There are many instances in our lives, when the conflict with our id, ego and superego is not effectively resolved and it is this, according to Freud, which results in individuals experiencing anxiety. In psychodynamic theory, anxiety is described as an uncomfortable or unpleasant psychological feeling that often arises from the fear that our instincts will make us do something we will be punished for.

3. Defence mechanisms and anxiety Freud proposed that defence mechanisms reduce anxiety by denying, falsifying or distorting reality at an unconscious level; that is, the ego interprets events in a way which denies or changes reality so that we can believe there is no need to feel anxious or ‘psychologically uneasy’. This usually happens without us being aware that we are actually doing it. According to Freud, it is our way of protecting ourselves from psychological harm. But it is not as if we say, ‘I'm feeling anxious. I had better project my hostile feelings onto someone else and reduce my anxiety!’ Defence mechanisms usually would not reduce anxiety if we recognised we were actively trying to cover up.

4. Why to people develop these defence mechanisms? According to Freud, people develop many defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety. Although the use of defence mechanisms is a common, normal way of coping with psychological conflicts and maintaining psychological stability, excessive use is considered abnormal. Some of the defence mechanisms described by Freud are summarised in table 12.1.

5. Look at the table 12.1 Do Learning Activity 12.6 in your work books Look at the Case study 12.7 as a class

6. Development of Personality in the Psychosexual theory According to Freud, our personality is virtually fully formed by the time we are about five or six years of age and our experiences up until this time play an important part in the development of our personality. Freud believed that personality development was sequential and progressed through a series of five stages which he called psychosexual stages. In defining these stages, Freud used the term ‘sex’ very broadly to refer to something which was ‘physically pleasurable’ rather than something specifically sexual. He believed that as we progress through the stages, different parts of the body become the focus of our attention and pleasure. According to Freud, each stage has a crucial developmental conflict that must be successfully resolved in order to move on to the next stage

7. A Controversial Theory One of the more controversial aspects of Freud's theory was his belief that many of the psychological problems experienced in adulthood are a direct result of childhood experiences and of how well the child can progress through each of the psychosexual stages. If the child experiences difficulty dealing with a crucial developmental conflict, they may become either frustrated because their needs are not being met fully, or overindulged if needs are met to a greater extent than is required.

8. Fixations When this happens, it can result in what Freud called a fixation in that stage. If a person is fixated (or ‘stuck’) in one stage, they are unlikely to be able to deal with other emotional crises they confront in the later developmental stages. According to Freud, fixations prevent the development of a ‘normal’ personality and can be the basis of personality and behavioural problems in later life

9. Oral Stage The first of Freud's psychosexual stages is the oral stage which occurs from birth to about age two years. During the oral stage, pleasure for the infant centres around its mouth, through sucking, biting and chewing. According to Freud, the parents are the main sources of gratification for the infant and the ways in which they meet the infant's needs are critical in shaping personality later in life.

10. Oral Stage An infant could develop an oral fixation if it found the experience of being fed too frustrating or too pleasurable. An oral fixation may show up in behaviour characteristics later in life in the form of cigarette smoking, nail biting, chewing on ends of pens, chewing gum, overeating or in becoming an alcoholic. Freud proposed that the focus on oral stimulation later in life may arise from needs not having been met during the oral stage. Alternatively, if an infant is overindulged during the oral stage, the result may be that, as an adult, they may constantly need to have something in their mouth

11. Personality Characteristics with the Oral Stage According to Freud, if the infant becomes frustrated during the oral stage, particularly when teeth come through, this may lead to aggressive personality characteristics later in life such as sarcasm, verbal aggression or cynicism. The personality characteristics often associated with a fixation at the oral stage are gullibility (being easily led), passivity, the need for lots of attention, dependence on others and a need to be looked after and cared for (like a baby).

12. Anal Stage From about two to three years of age the young child goes through the anal stage, when the focus of pleasure relates to the anus, particularly when passing stools. During toilet training, for the first time in its life, the child can exercise some power over the parents to either gain approval or displeasure by ‘letting go’ or ‘holding in’ from the bowel. According to Freud, the way in which toilet training occurs is crucial.

13. Personality Characteristics of the Anal stage Personality characteristics which develop from an anal fixation (if toilet training is harsh, it begins too early or too late, or if passing stools is excessively pleasurable) fall into two categories. Anal-retentive(‘holding in’) personality characteristics include being excessively clean, orderly, organised, a hoarder, stubborn and stingy. These people are often said to resent others who do not demonstrate similar characteristics. Anal-expulsive(special pleasure from ‘letting go’) personality characteristics include untidiness, impulsivity, destructiveness, disorderliness and cruelty.

14. Anal Stage

15. Max: When you have finished being married to Daddy, can I marry you?Me: No Max, Mummy's can't marry their sons.....Max: But I WAAAAANT to! Cos' I love you sooooo much!:/

16. Phallic Stage The phallic stage, which a child passes through at the age of about four to five years, is the stage when the child's attention is often focused on the sex organs. At this time the child is said to seek genital stimulation and develop an unconscious attraction to the parent of the opposite sex, while at the same time developing unconscious feelings of jealousy and hatred toward the parent of the same sex. In girls, Freud calls this the Electra complex, when the girl loves her father and competes with her mother for the father's affection and attention. In boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, when the boy is attracted to his mother and envies his father

17. Phallic Stage • Resolving the conflicts caused by these developmental problems is crucial to healthy ‘psychosexual’ development. • Those individuals not able to resolve the conflicts may develop long-lasting psychological problems. • For a boy, resolving the Oedipus complex will lead to controlling his envy and hostility towards his father and trying to be like him. • For a girl, resolving the Electra complex and ultimately developing ‘normally’ means overcoming her attraction towards her father, identifying with her mother and finally looking for a male to take the place of her father.

18. Heterosexual Bias It is important to note that this aspect of Freud's theory has been criticised for its heterosexual bias and for the proposal that a girl needs a male figure in her life (either her father or a substitute). These points are perhaps best understood by putting them in the context of the time when the theory was developed — over 100 years ago in Victorian Europe, at a time when society was male dominated and homosexuality was illegal

19. Latency stage From about age six to puberty, the child goes through the latency stage. During the latency stage, attention is focused away from the bodily zones and pleasure seeking. I It is a period or time when psychosexual development is dormant (‘on hold’). Previous sexual feelings are forgotten and the child focuses on developing close relationships with others of the same sex. Freud viewed this as a relatively quiet and stable time in development in which the child is preoccupied with developing their social skills

20. Genital stage The final stage of psychosexual development according to Freud's theory is the genital stage which begins at puberty and continues through adolescence to early adulthood. During the genital stage, sexual energies are focused on the genitals as they mature and the ability to reproduce occurs. This stage is characterised by the growing need for mature social and sexual relationships with others. Freud did not identify this stage as causing problems in the development of a ‘normal’ personality as much as he did for the oral, anal and phallic stages. However, this depended on the way in which the individual had dealt with crucial developmental conflicts of previous stages and whether they had developed fixations.

21. Strengths and Limitations of Psychodynamic theory

22. Strengths and Limitations of Psychodynamic theory Relatively few contemporary psychologists believe that personality development proceeds in age-related stages. Most psychologists also have a view that personality development continues throughout the entire lifespan, and does not ‘stop’ or ‘slow down’ at five or six years of age, as suggested by Freud. Importantly, Freud's theory lacks scientific research evidence. Not only is his theory based substantially on personal observations of patients who presented to him with psychological problems, it is also based on many ideas that are extremely difficult to test using the methods of science.

23. Psychodynamic Development Freud's theory was the first psychodynamic theory, but not the only theory based on this approach. Other psychologists (and psychiatrists) developed their own versions of a psychodynamic theory of personality. For example, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney each developed a well-known psychodynamic theory. Generally, they developed their own versions because they disagreed with certain aspects of Freud's theory. These neo-Freudian theorists, as they came to be known, disagreed with such aspects as Freud's focus on the role of sexual forces, his lack of attention to the importance of social interactions throughout life, his lack of attention to socio-cultural influences, whether there is any latency period of development, and whether Oedipal and Electra conflicts actually occur. Generally, most contemporary psychologists do not support Freud's theory of personality development or any of the other psychodynamic theories. LEARNING ACTIVITY 12.9