The Psychology of Organizations: A Social Identity Approach

1. The Psychology of Organizations:A Social Identity Approach Thomas A. Morton S. Alexander Haslam

2. The Social Identity Approach Implications for organizational functioning Evidence for social identity analysis

3. The social identity approach • Incorporates principles from: • social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) • self-categorization theory (Turner et al., 1987, 1994). • The self is context-dependent and can be defined at different levels of abstraction: • Personal, social, organisational, national, human • Explores the causes and consequences of different forms of self-definition (i.e., identity) for motivation, behaviour and interaction

4. social identity personal identity The social identity approach Motivated by individual self-interest & personal gain Guided by personal values and standards Motivated by collective interest & collective gain Guided by shared values and standards • Our sense of self can be defined by: • individuality (personal identity — ’me’, ‘I’) • group membership (i.e., in terms ofsocial identity — ‘we’, ‘us’) • There is a qualitativedifference between behaviour that is based on personal identity (‘I’) and that based on social identity (‘we’).

5. social identity The social identity approach To the extent that a shared social identity is salient (a) we see ourselves as categorically interchangeable with other ingroup members (as defined by context) (b) we influence, and are influenced by, ingroup members (to the extent that we or they are representative of that group) (c) we enhance self-esteem (collectively self-actualize) by working collaboratively towards shared ingroup goals. To the extent that a shared social identity is salient:

6. Team A Team B The social identity approach To the extent that a shared social identity is salient (a) we see ourselves as categorically distinct from outgroup members (as defined by context) (b) we are influenced by ingroup members but resist influence from outgroup members (c) we enhance self-esteem (collectively self-actualize) by working competitively against the outgroup. To the extent that subgroup identities are salient

7. Implications for organisational functioning Non-shared identity Shared identity • Situations/ structures that emphasise shared identity will facilitate organisational functioning • Situations/ structures that highlight non-shared identities will impair organisational functioning Motivation to coordinate, cooperate, communicate Barriers to coordination, cooperation and communication

8. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Traditional approaches in organisational psychology focus on the leader: • What are the personality characteristics of good leaders? • What forms of leader behaviour are most effective? • Although intuitively appealing, these approaches to leadership have proven theoretically and empirically unsatisfying • In real time, it is unclear who will be known as visionaries and who will be known as failures (Nadler & Tushman, 1990)

9. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • According to the Social Identity Approach, leadership is not an individual quality but the outcome of a group process • It’s not just about leaders, it’s about followers • It’s not about me, it’s about us • It’s not about power over, it’s about power through(Turner, 2005)

10. Study in which Ps choose group leader from multiple candidates when confronted by an outgroup that is either (a) intelligent or (b) diligent. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Leaders are more effective the more they are perceived to represent a social identity that we share. The characteristics we value in leaders (e.g., intelligence) are those that typify us but not them Turner & Haslam, G@W (2001)

11. So sometimes we want leaders who are intelligent … … and sometimes we want leaders who aren’t.   Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Leaders are more effective the more they are perceived to represent a social identity that we share. You mis-underestimate me

12. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Things that set (or are perceived to set) leaders apart from the group can undermine the effectiveness of their leadership. Very high salaries at the top, concluded Morgan — who was hardly contemptuous of big money or an ‘anti-capitalist’ — disrupt the team. They make even high-ranking people in the company see their own top management as adversaries rather than as colleagues. ... And that quenches any willingness to say ‘we’ and to exert oneself except in one’s own immediate self-interest.(Drucker, 1986)

13. Study in which leaders and followers are given different rewards for their contribution to a group task (survival in the desert) Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Things that set (or are perceived to set) leaders apart from the group can undermine the effectiveness of their leadership. Haslam, PiO, 2001 Reward inequality de-motivates followers

14. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Things that set (or are perceived to set) leaders apart from the group can undermine the effectiveness of their leadership. Haslam, Peters & Ryan (in prep) • Archival study of British Universities (1998-2007) • N=198; full data from ≈50% of institutions (all major ones) • Obtained measures of: • Vice-chancellor’s pay (rankings) 1 • Average staff member pay (rankings) 1 • University performance (Times League Table) 2 Notes 1 Rankings used because measurement varied across years 2 Includes: Student Satisfaction, Research Quality (e.g., RAE), Entry Standards, Student-Staff Ratios, Services & Facilities Spend, Completion, Good Honours and Graduate Prospects

15. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Things that set (or are perceived to set) leaders apart from the group can undermine the effectiveness of their leadership. Haslam, Peters & Ryan (in prep) • Hypotheses: H1. V-C Pay will be positively correlated with performance H2. Staff Pay will be positively correlated with performance H3. Discrepancy between V-C and staff pay will be negatively correlated with performance

16. Social Identity Approach to Leadership • Things that set (or are perceived to set) leaders apart from the group can undermine the effectiveness of their leadership. Results (raw correlations) PerfPay PayPerf .40 .35 .59 .64 –.21 –.32 Haslam, Peters & Ryan (in prep) • Hypotheses: H1. V-C Pay will be positively correlated with performance H2. Staff Pay will be positively correlated with performance H3. Discrepancy between V-C and staff pay will be negatively correlated with performance   

17. Material and psychological distance between leader and followers Shared social identity fosters followership and group success Leader, but not followers, gets credit and reward for group success Lack of shared social identity compromises followership, cohesion and success Social Identity Approach to Leadership • A social identity model of the rise and fall of great leaders: Haslam, Peters & Ryan (in prep) As 'one of us', leader builds social identity Old models of leadership not only fail to deliver group success, they may actually undermine it.

18. Summary • The social identity approach re-frames organisational psychology • From individual values, motivations and personality qualities to shared values, motivations and identity • Useful theoretical tool for understanding a range of organisational problems: • Communication, coordination, motivation, stress, productivity… and leadership • Organisation is more successful when individuals interact based on shared identities rather than interpersonal or intergroup divisions