Understanding Aging: Life Course and Theories

1. Basic Concepts 1 A Life Course Perspective on Aging

2. Age Identification • A central concept in the meaning of age itself • Refers to both how many years have passed since we were born, and various social/psychological areas of our lives • Age differentiation – certain roles and behaviors are considered appropriate based on chronological age • Age grading – refers to the way people are assigned different roles in society based on their age • Age stratification – theory that a person’s position in the age structure affects behavior or attitudes

3. The Stages of Life • Humans have always recognized a progression through life, from young age to old age. • However, views of how humans age and the meaning and expectations attached to certain ages have changed over time and culture. • Greek/Roman, Middle Ages, Renaissance, and the Industrial Age all had different views of progression through the life course.

4. The Stages of Life (cont.) • Today, distinctions are made between certain stages of life, based on chronological age • Because humans are living longer, many people will spend at least 1/3 of adulthood in retirement • Distinctions are now made between: • Young-Old – ages 65-74 • Old-Old – ages 75-84 • Oldest-Old – ages 85 and over

5. The Life Course and Aging • Aging is increasingly viewed from a “Life Course” perspective • The term “span of a lifetime” = total number of years we live • The term “course of life” = the meaningful pattern seen in the passing of time • Life Transitions • Rites of passage – special events marking the transition from one role to another • Many behavioral or psychological problems come about because of the difficulties in preparing for life transitions without help from society

6. Theories of Aging • Modernization Theory – claims that the status of the elderly declines as societies become more modern • Old age was valued in agricultural society where the elderly controlled the land • Disengagement Theory – looks at old age as a time when both the older person and society engage in mutual separation (e.g., retirement from work) • One of the earliest attempts to explain old age in modern society • Doesn’t always refer to the outward behavior of people – can mean an inner attitude toward life

7. Theories of Aging (cont.) • Activity Theory – argues that the more active people are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with life • Opposite view of Disengagement Theory • May be difficult for “old-old” people because of physical changes with aging • Continuity Theory – claims that people who grow older are inclined to maintain as much as they can of the same habits, personality, and style of life they developed in earlier years • Similar to Activity Theory in believing that decreases in social interaction are better explained by poor health or disability, rather than some functional need of society to “disengage” older people from their previous roles

8. Influences on the Life Course • All theories have limits – none fully explains the many ways individuals experience old age • Many also reflect social values in uncritical ways (e.g., setting up either activity or disengagement as the ideal goal in old age) • Most pervasive view of adulthood assumes continuous deterioration and decline • Gives priority to biological factors and is the basis for age-based prejudice called Ageism

9. Influences on the Life Course (cont.) • Social class and life history affect one’s path through the life course • Also, other factors such as: earlier life events, social/cultural historical events, unpredictable non-normative life events, etc. • Social institutions and policies have structured the life course in modern times, and define transitions throughout life • This may provide order and predictability • Or it may foster dependency on the system • Learned helplessness – dependency and depression reinforced by the external environment

10. Aging in the 21st Century • Today, we no longer have a shared map for the course of life • Time and the Life Course – there are many expectations about how much time should be spent in certain stages of life • Ex., time spent devoted to education, childbearing, etc. • The Moral Economy of the Life Course – embodies expectations of what is fair or right • The old moral economy which distributed work and leisure according to chronological age is losing its power • But we have nothing to replace it yet

11. The Biology of Aging • The new science of longevity – on a biological level, aging results from changes in cells, tissues, etc.; so we understand the process by comparing young cells to old ones • Cross-sectional methodology – looks at the physical function of people at different chronological ages, but at a single point in time (e.g., looking at a 1-, 10-, 20, and 30-year old on April 25th, 2009) • Biomarkers – biological indicators that can identify features of the basic process of aging (ex., blood pressure, eyesight and hearing abilities, etc.) • Reserve capacity – the body’s ability to recover from assaults and withstand high demands during physical exertion

12. The Biology of Aging (cont.) • For each species, there is a different: • Lifespan – how long a member of a species can survive and • Life expectancy – the average number of years an individual can be expected to live after birth • Antagonistic pleiotropy – the idea of a trait that is valuable in early life, but harmful in later life (e.g., a harmful gene that doesn’t appear until after the time of reproduction)

13. Mechanisms of Physical Aging • Wear and Tear – The balance between the body’s exposure to damage and it’s ability to repair itself shifts, and it becomes harder for the body to heal itself • Free Radicals – contributes to physical aging; free radicals (ionized oxygen molecules) are the waste products that result from continuous cell metabolism • If these proteins become inactive and are unable to carry out their functions, they can become a destructive force • The Immune System – The immune system’s job is to defend the body against invaders like viruses, bacteria, and parasites; with normal aging, the body’s ability to fight invaders declines

14. Aging and Psychological Functioning • In a new movement called “successful aging,” gerontologists seek to understand several psychological factors affecting age, including: • Self-concept and social relationships • Social roles • Cognitive functioning (the most affected by aging)