CHAPTER 2 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS

1. CHAPTER 2 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS

2. INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS Set of interrelated components Work together effectively and reliably Instructional System Provide learning activities Accomplish a learning goal

3. Some Categories of Instructional Systems • Classroom course (live, face-to-face) • Broadcast course (TV-Radio) • Self-instructional package (self-study) • Web-based instruction (Intranet-internet) • Laboratory activities • Workshop • Seminar • Field trip • Computer courseware (CBI, desktop, multimedia) • Teleconferencing

4. Components of Instructional Systems • Gals and objectives • Methods • Media • Equipment • Environment • Environment (facilities/settings) • People (students, instructor, teacher, trainer, media specialist, technology coordinator, etc…)

5. Discussion, cooperative learning, games, simulation/role play, discover/inquiry, problem solving, presentation, demonstration, drill-and-practice, tutorials Methods Case studies, conference (live on electronic chat room), brainstorming, self-study, panels, coaching, reading, projects, lecture, debate, collaboration/cooperative learning Activities To incorporate many of these methods into an instructional system, media are needed: • Audio • Visuals • Motion media • Manipulatives • Text • People printed materials, visual recordings, audio recordings, computer programs, overhead transparencies computers, satellite networks, television receivers, telephone lines, display surfaces (e.g. marker boards, chalkboards, flipchart holders, erasable or electronic whiteboards, projectors, players, bulletin boards, etc… MATERIALS EQUIPMENT MEDIA

6. Characteristics of an Instructional System One-way receptive Direction Two-way interaction Learners must be presented for the instruction at the time time Synchronous Synchronization Asynchronous Live at the same time same place for all learners Distance learning for all students at the same time Different learners learn the same content at different times e.g. packaged instruction

7. Group Size Large, medium, small individuals Same Time Time Different Time Same Location Location Different Location Cost

8. Some principles of successful instruction. • Active participation and interaction • Practice • Individualized instruction • Reinforcement or feedback • Realistic context • Cooperative groups

9. COOPERATIVE LEARNING Small heterogeneous groups of students Students work together to achieve a common academic goal or task While working together they learn collaboration and social skills All are responsible for each other’s learning as well as their own Group members are interdependent • Cooperative learning gained importance because: • collaborative activity is required in the life outside the classroom • social interaction is valuable in making learning meaningful

10. Advantages of Cooperative Learning • Active learning (active interaction) • Social skills (interpersonal, communication, leadership, compromise, collaboration skills) • Interdependence • Individual accountability (individuals learn to be accountable for their actions)

11. Limitations of Cooperative Learning • Student compatibility (teachers must know their students well to form groups that will function effectively) • Student dependency (system must require learners to truly collaborate) • Time consuming • Individualists do not like cooperative learning • Logistical obstacles (the teacher must arrange a lot of information, student responsibilities, and assessment activities)

12. INTEGRATION by using cooperative learning method Students must work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Each student work independently on a component of a task and their efforts are pooled at the end to attain a common goal. NOT considered to be cooperative learning Articulating and negotiating ideas with each other with a deeper level of interaction and group members must be independent Cooperative learning Group members must have a stake in each other’s understanding and mastery of the material

13. Computer-Based Cooperative Learning Logistical obstacles to using cooperative learning method can be overcome by using computers. • Managing information • Allocating different individual responsibilities • Analyzing learner responses • Presenting and monitoring instructional material • Administrating tests • Scoring and providing remediation for those tests.

14. Online Collaborative Learning The internet allows students from different schools to work collaboratively. • They share data or • They collectively create a paper or a report Students can gain additional information from an expert.

15. GAMES • A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as they strive to attain a challenging goal. • Individual against individual (chess) • Group against group (basketball) • Individual against a standard (golf) • Individual against his/her previous own scores (computer games) • Individual against the designer of the game (computer games) Goals must be with 50% probability of achievement Game is challenging Goals that are always or never attained NOT challenging Challenge must be in the intermediate level

16. For instructional purposes individual or team against a given standard is considered to be the safety approach. • Individualization is promoted because different standards can be set for different players. • The goal may be to raise the level of aspiration continually (to be better from one’s own past performance). Some instructional games encourage players to decide among themselves what criteria to apply in determining success. Who is going to be the winner?

17. Games incorporate the common features of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivitism, and social psychology. • Games provide the opportunity to practice content such as • Math • Vocabulary and able to practice problem-solving skills, and critical thinking skills. • Games may or may not take place in realistic contexts. • Games base don realistic contexts are called simulation games. • Games may be paper based or electronic.

18. Advantages of Games • Attractive (they are fun) • Novel (different from normal classroom routine) • Atmosphere (specially low achievers like the pleasant, relaxed atmosphere) • Time on task (fun keeps learners interested in repetitious tasks) Limitations of Games • Competition (can demotivate students who are weak in the skill being practiced) • Distraction (students can get caught up in the excitement and fail to focus on the real objective) • Poor design (may not provide the actual practice of the intended academic skill)

19. Integration • Attainment of cognitive objectives involving; • recognition • discrimination • memorization of • grammar rules • phonics • spelling • arithmetic skills • formulas • basic science concepts • place names • terminology, and so on

20. Adding motivation to topics • Small group instruction without close instructor supervision. • Basic skills such as • following a sequence • sense of direction • visual perception • number concepts • following a rule can be developed • Vocabulary building (e.g. Boggle, Fluster, Scramble and Probe)

21. Usually games are not designed from scratch. A frame game has a framework that can be adapted by changing the subject matter while retaining the games’ structure. The designer (teacher) loads the desired content onto a convenient frame.

22. Simulations • A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of some real-life situation or process. • Simulations are by design active. • They provide realistic practice with feedback in a realistic context. • Most simulations include social interaction, (flight simulator, however, does not supply an social interaction). • Some computer-based simulations adjust their difficulty level based on the ability of the “player”.

23. Advantages of Simulations • Realistic • Safe • Simplified Limitations of Simulations • Time consuming (usually a trial-and-error learning) • Oversimplified (constructivists argue that learning should take place in fully realistic situations)

24. Integration of Simulations Instructional simulations are particularly well suited on: • Training in motor skills • Social interaction (displaying empathy, coping with reactions of other people) • Development of decision-making skills (e.g. microteaching in teacher education, mock court in low school, management simulations in business administrations). Simulations are valuable because they implement problem-based learning method as directly and clearly as possible.

25. Simulators The devise employed to represent a physical system in a called-down form is referred to as a simulator. Controlled by computers to offer a highly realistic audiovisual effects. Mock-up of the interior of the cockpit complete with controls and gauges Flight Simulator Allow significant savings of energy and other coasts: 4000$ per hour / or in air training 400$ / hour on flight simulator. Estimates the possibility of loss of life and aircraft

26. Role Play Role play refers to a type of simulation Role play asks someone: • To imagine that she/he is another person • To be in a particular situation Learn something about another person Learn about the dynamics of an unfamiliar situation Traits are discussed and possibly modified To allow the person’s own traits to emerge The main purpose

27. Role play simulation has proven to be a motivating and effective method. It develops social skills, especially empathy. • Role playing are used for tasks such as: • Counseling • Interviewing • Sales and customer services • Supervision, and • Management

28. Simulation Games Simulation Game Role playing or a model of reality combined with attributes of a game

29. Modeling of reality and players’ interactions as they strive to succeed. • Simulation games provide conditions forHOLISTIC LEARNING Learners encounter a whole and dynamic view of the process they are studying. Emotions come into play along with the thinking process Learners experience excitement, elation, disappointment, even anger . Popular topics are: Societal processes, cultural conflicts, historical eras, ecological systems, and so on.

30. Instructional simulation games Reality context associated with simulations Repetitive skill practice associated with games

31. Cooperative Simulation Games If children are nurtured on cooperation, acceptance, and success in a fun-oriented atmosphere They develop strong, positive self-concept Cooperative games challenge the body and imagination They depend on cooperation for success but Example Computer-based simulations that challenge participants to work together to unlock a mystery A group of learners must work synchronously and cooperatively to arrive at a successful conclusion

32. Programmed Instruction • Considered as the first instructional system. • Reinforcement theory (Operant Conditioning) suggested by B. F. Skinner was used. Sequence of a programmed instruction: • Programmed text or computer software are prepared for programmed instruction Information Question Response Feedback Linear Programming Branching programming (intrinsic programming) Vertically arranged frames – a rigid format Two Types of Programming Learners who catch on quickly can move through the material much more efficiently, following the “prime path”.

33. CIA and web based instruction provide formats for active leaner participation including practice with feedback Learning alone by individual using printed material or a computer usually refers to Programmed Instruction A human tutor working one-one-one with a learner Involves Programmed tutoring

34. Advantages of Programmed Instruction • Self-pacing (at learner’s time and place) • Practice and feedback • Reliable (instructional routine is embodied in print or as computer software which can be mass produced and experienced by many people in exactly the same form) • Effective (Research findings proved the superiority of programmed instruction)

35. Limitations of Programmed Instruction • Program design (some programmed materials are poorly designed and have little value) • Tedious (Repetition of the same cycle and plowing through an endless series of small steps take the attention span and patience of many students) • Lack of Social Interaction (Most programmed materials are for individual use. Affective and interpersonal skills are neglected)

36. Integration of Programmed Instruction • Programmed materials can be used in almost every subject area and at all levels of education. Programmed instruction is particularly useful as an enrichment activity. Highly motivated students can have extra materials to work on their own. The teacher will be relieved of the classroom time pressure. Programmed materials are also effective in reminded instruction The program can function as a tutor for slow learners

37. Programmed Tutoring (Structured Tutoring) • It provides one to one interaction with carefully structured printed instructions. • Tutor and students go through the lesson material. • Tutor’s book has the answers to the exercises; the student’s book does not.

38. The tutor’s role is set forth step by step The tutor goes to the next step on the basis of the learner’s last response. Programmed tutoring is a form of branching programming. The last learner can skip quickly through the material If the response is incorrect, a series of increasingly clearer prompts or hints is given If the response is still incorrect the tutor will start asking questions related to prerequisite skills

39. Advantages of Programmed Tutoring • Self-pacing • Practice and feedback is provided • Social reinforcers (“That’s great”, “Oh, what a good answer”) • Reliable (teaching-learning pattern is embodied in a set of written instructions for the tutor) • Effective (Proven by research) Limitations of Programmed Tutoring • Labor intensive (Programmed tutoring depends on the availability of volunteer tutors) • Development cost (Investment of time and expertise) Integration of Programmed Tutoring • Reading and mathematics are the most popular subjects. • Tutors also learn from tutoring. • Absentees can be tutored when they return.