British Political Institutions

1. British Political Institutions

2. Institutions of National Gov’t • 3 branches of gov’t & bureaucracy • Legislature (bicameral model developed by Britain, copied by others) • Parliamentary system, very different from U.S. presidential system • Separation of powers doesn’t exist • Judicial branch lacks power of judicial review – no role in interpreting “Constitution of the Crown”

3. President of United States Elected every 4 years by electoral college based on popular vote Elected as President Has excellent chance of ending in gridlock w/ Congress Cabinet members not usually from Congress Expertise in policy areas for appointment to Cabinet Cabinet members head vast bureaucracies Prime Minister of Britain Serves as long as he/she remains leader of majority party Elected as MP Has excellent chance of getting programs passed by Parliament Cabinet members are MPs, leaders of majority party Cabinet members not experts in policy areas Cabinet members rely on bureaucracies for expertise Comparative Executives

4. Cabinet and the Prime Minister • Cabinet: PM and his ministers, each handling a major bureaucracy of gov’t • Party leaders from Parliament, chosen by PM • Collective cabinet: center of policy making in British political system • PM has responsibility of shaping their decisions • Doesn’t vote in Parliament • Take “collective responsibility” for making policy for the country • Unity of Cabinet important for stability of gov’t

5. PM is “first among equals”, but stands at apex of unitary gov’t • Is member of Parliament, and chosen leader of majority party • Roles of PM: • Speaks legitimately for all MPs • Chooses cabinet ministers & important subordinate posts • Makes decisions in the cabinet, w/ agreement of ministers • Campaigns for & represents the party in parliamentary elections

6. Parliament • Little separation of powers between cabinet (executive) & parliament (legislative) • House of Commons • Based on assumption 1 party gets majority of seats, another serve as “opposition” • Party w/ plurality at polls = majority party • Second party = “loyal opposition”

7. Set up of House of Commons: • Long benches facing one another w/ table in middle • PM sits on front bench of majority side, middle • Across from PM is leader of opposition party • Cabinet members sit on front rows of majority side • “shadow cabinet” faces them on opposition side • Finally – less influential MPs (backbenchers)

8. Debate • “government” = MPs on first rows of majority party side, are most important policymakers • Is spirited • Question Time – PM & cabinet must defend themselves from attack by opposition • Speaker of House presides over debates • Supposed to be objective & often not member of majority • Let all speak, but not let things get out of hand • Opposition party seen as check on majority

9. Party Discipline • B/c majority party is essentially the gov’t – discipline very important! • Majority wants to avoid losing “vote of confidence” (support for an issue) • If issue not supported, cabinet by tradition must resign & new elections for MPs held ASAP • Usually avoided by settling policy differences w/in majority party membership • Policy making powers of House very limited b/c many gov’t decisions ratified by Cabinet, never go to Parliament • Since 1970s, backbenchers less deferential to party leadership than in the past • Vocal on opposition to gov’t policy of adopting euro, forces in Iraq, etc

10. Powers of members of Parliament • Debate & refine potential legislation • Only ones who may become party leaders & ultimately lead gov’t • scrutinize the administration of laws • Keep communication lines open between voters & ministers

11. House of Lords • Only hereditary parliamentary house in existence today • Historically was original parliament • Today, little influence! • Established supremacy during 17th century, gradually declined in authority • Since turn of 20th century its only powers: • Delay legislation • Debate technicalities of proposed bills • Add amendments to legislation, but House of Commons may delete changes by simple majority vote • Includes 5 law lords who are Britain’s highest court of appeals, but can’t rule acts of Parliament unconstitutional

12. Until 1999, ½ of members of Lords were hereditary peers – hold seats that have been passed down over centuries; remaining were life peers – appointed to non-hereditary positions b/c of distinguished service to Britain • 1999 – Labour gov’t took seats away from most hereditary peers, so only 92 hereditary seats remain; 567 are life peers

13. Criticism of British parliamentary system: lack of separation between PM & legislature is dangerous concentration of power • Supporters of parliamentary system praise efficiency, b/c doesn’t experience “gridlock” often found between Congress & President in U.S.

14. Bureaucracy • Is stable & powerful • Most civil servants handle day-to-day operations • A few 100 higher servants directly advise ministers & oversee work of the departments; coordinate the policies that cabinet members set w/ actual implementation • Top civil servants have great deal of input into policymaking, including discretionary power to make many decisions in implementing legislative & executive decisions • Minister has powerful position in cabinet, but relies heavily on advice of bureaucrats • As cabinets come & go, bureaucrats stay and fulfill important roles in gov’t

15. Judiciary • Concept of trial by jury goes back to Henry II in 13th century • Principle of parliamentary sovereignty (parliament’s decisions are final) limited development of judicial review • Can only determine whether gov’t decision violate common law or previous acts of Parliament • Prefer to defer to authority of Parliament

16. Legal system based on common law, contrasts to code law (practiced throughout rest of Europe) • Code law less focused on precedent & interpretation than common law • do have distinctions between original & appellate jurisdiction • Highest court: Law Lords – actually members of House of Lords • Reputation of being independent impartial, neutral • Appointed, expected to retire at 75 • Britain’s membership in EU gives judges new responsibility that promises to become even more important • b/c Britain bound by EU treaties / laws, it is judges’ responsibility to interpret them & determine if EU laws conflict w/ parliamentary statutes

17. Linkage Institutions • Political Parties • Began to form in 18th century • At first: caucuses – meetings of people from same area or of like mind • 2 party system emerged 19th century, roots in electorate, under Charles II • Whig: opposed king; Scottish bandits • Eventually became Liberal Party • Tory: supported king; Irish bandits • Became Conservative Party (still has nickname “Tories”)

18. Today – 2 major political parties • Labour • Conservative • Strong 3rd parties affect election results – i.e. the Liberal Democrats Party • Labour Party • Largest party on left • Controlled British gov’t since 1997, w/ PM Tony Blair • Gordon Brown elected after Blair • Began 1906 as alliance between trade unions and socialist groups & was strengthened by expansion of rights for working class • Lost in Spring 2010 elections • Less support because of declining economy, prolonged involvement in Iraq

19. Early history partially shaped by “Clause 4” called for nationalization of British industry • Moderation of party reflected by changes in Labour party Constitution in early 1990s • Loss of the 1992 election (which they were expected to win) was turning point in Labour’s development • Bring in Tony Blair – win elections in 1997, 2001, 2005 • Will be replaced by Gordon Brown in 2007 • Has tried to redefine itself as a moderate party, support from many types of voters

20. Conservative Party – dominant party between WWII & 1997 • Main party on right; prospered b/c has traditionally been pragmatic, not ideological • Supported market controlled economy, privatization, fewer social welfare programs during 1980s (Thatcher) • Characterized by noblesse oblige(Benevolent, honorable behavior considered to be the responsibility of persons of high birth or rank) • Power centered in London • Since Labour seized power 1997, Conservative Party has had deep divisions • Traditional Wing (one-nation Tories), values noblesse oblige, wants country ruled by elites that takes others interests into account • Thatcherite Wing roll back gov’t, have free market; referred to as Euroskeptics (see EU’s move toward integration as threat to British sovereignty)

21. Liberal Democrats • Formed by merging Liberals & Social Democrats (1983, 1987, officially in 1989) • Goals: establish strong party in middle as compromise to politics of Conservative & Labour parties • Has won significant %s of votes, but b/c of single member plurality voting system, haven’t earned proportional numbers of seats • Campaigned for proportional representation, Bill of Rights modeled after Amendments 1-10 of U.S. Constitution • Strength declined in early 1990s as other parties moved toward center • Did benefit from public disillusionment w/ Blair gov’t • 2005 elections – had 62 seats out of 646 (10.4%), even though won more than 22% of vote

22. Other Parties: • Nationalist groups • Wales: Plaid Cymru, shut Conservative Party out of region between 1997 – 2005; Labour remains strong • Scotland: Scottish National Party, shut Conservative Party out of region between 1997 – 2005; Labour remains strong • Northern Ireland: Sinn Fein (political arm of IRA), Democratic Unionist Party (led by Protestant clergymen)

23. Elections • Must be held every 5 years, but PM may call them earlier • Officially occur after Crown dissolves Parliament, but that happens b/c PM requests it • Power to call elections very important b/c PM is head of majority party – can call them when PM thinks the majority party has best chance to win

24. Plurality Electoral System • Winner-take-all, w/ no runoff elections • Often exaggerates size of victory of largest party, reduces influence of minor parties • Regional parties tend to fare better • 2005: Labour party receives 35.3% of vote, but received 356 of 646 seats (55.1%) (majority!) • Each party selects candidate to run for each district post • Person w/ most votes wins – even w/o majority (first-past-the-post) • MPs don’t have to live in the district; Party selects who runs

25. Elections of Regional Governments • Good Friday Agreement of April 1998, Britain agreed to give N. Ireland a regional gov’t, where all parties would be represented on proportional basis – meaning religion based parties have a % that matched total votes received • Later – similar agreements w/ Scotland & Wales

26. United States Parties are less powerful Members must live in districts Party leaders run in their respective districts Individual votes for 4 officials on national level Between 30 – 50 % of eligible voters actually vote First-past-the-post, single-member districts Virtually no minor parties get representation Britain Party determines who runs where Members usually don’t live in districts Party leaders run in “safe districts” Individual votes for only 1 official on national level About 70% of eligible voters actually vote First-past-the-post, single-member districts Minority parties get some representation U.S. vs. British Elections

27. Campaign Financing • Campaigns shorter & less expensive than U.S.A. • But in 2006, both major parties under investigation for campaign financing for • Peerages (seats in House of Lords) – prohibited from offering peerages in return for $$ • Disclosure of non-commercial loans – required to disclose benefits derived from personal loans (secret loans from wealth well-wishers)

28. Interest Groups • Well-established; represent interest group pluralism • Relatively autonomous groups competing w/ each other for influence • Neo-corporatism: interest groups take the lead & sometimes dominate the state • Quangos: (quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organizations) – greatest influence of British interest groups • Together w/ gov’t officials develop public policy • Most influential groups linked to class & industrial interests • Trades Union Congress (TUC) represents coalition of unions, clout 1945 – 1970 b/c gov’t consulted them on important decisions • Influence decreased under Thatcher • The Confederation of Business Industries (CBI) to limit TUC’s power, wage demands

29. Thatcher wanted to reduce influence of interest groups, but esp. TUC • As labor unions lost public support, also lost political sway • Labour Party loosened ties to unions, broadened voter base • Interest groups regained power since Thatcher left, but Blair’s “Third Way” partnered w/ both unions and business!

30. Role of the Media • Newspapers reflect social class divisions • Middle & Upper classes • Mass circulation tabloids carrying sensational news • Commercial TV introduced 1950s • British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) – TV / radio came to life during collective consensus era • Sought to educate citizens • Respectful of gov’t officials • Major clash w/ Blair gov’t in 2003 over war in Iraq • Despite competition from private companies, gov’t strictly regulates BBC & commercial stations