Political Institutions

Political Institutions Nigeria

Political Institutions • Multiple regimes throughout its history • North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary monarchies • Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-states • South – small, communal kinship-based rule • British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule under British direction) • Post-independence = Military Authoritarianism • Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but does not generally operate as such • British controlled economy led to current state controlled economy • Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World Bank) to save economy

Political Parties • Factionalism led to creation of many political parties • Failure to create coherent party system • Parties formed and faded around personalities • Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious cleavages • Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998 • In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election • This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

Political Parties II • People’s Democratic Party (PDP) • Well-established Party • Began running candidates in 1998 • Party of President OlesugunObesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North) • Obasanjoreceived 62% of vote in 2003 election • PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors throughout the country • Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the PDP • All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) • General MuhammaduBuhari, Muslim from the North, ran against Obesanjo • Received about 32% of the vote • His running mate and potential future candidate was ChubaOkadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast • Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party • Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections

Elections & Electoral Procedures • Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national. • National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states. • National Elections • Presidential Elections • After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another in 2003. • If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place. • President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states • A purely regional candidate can not win • Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

Elections Continued • Legislative Elections • Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja • Elected by direct popular vote • 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives) • Elected from single member districts by plurality vote • Regional representation dominates in both houses. • Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature • Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria

Election Fraud • Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delay • Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would be • Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPP • Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) • Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million names to be fraudulent during 2003 elections • International teams concluded elections were corrupt • Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes • Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

Interest Groups • Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics • A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political parties • Religious interest groups important in Nigeria • Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to member • Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court system • Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.

Interest Groups II • Labor Unions • Independent and politically influential prior to 1980s • Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the influence of labor unions • A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders • In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt to raise oil prices for Nigerian consumers • Business Interests • Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes, in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class • Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s • Human Rights Groups • Promote democratic reforms • Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional groups (doctors, lawyers) • These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha

Interest Groups III Kaduna Mafia • Loosely organized group of military officers and civilians who support Babangida; also supported Obasanjo National Democratic Coalition (NADECO) • Based in southwest; supported Abiola’s presidential campaign

Mass Media • Nigeria has well-developed, independent press • General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994 • Press reflects ethnic divisions in the country • Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the south • Radio is the main source of information for most Nigerians • All 36 states have their own radio stations

Institutions of National Government • Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory) • Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) • Executive has been most dominant traditionally • Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branch • 2nd, 3rd, & 4th Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary • Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central government

Executive Branch • 1979, 2nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British model • Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule • Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party system • U.S. presidential model with two-term limits • Appoints a Cabinet (approved by Senate); veto legislation, which can be overridden • 1983, Major-General MuhammaduBuhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule • Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985 • Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993 • Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

Presidents

Executive II • Military Rule • 7 military rulers have all ruled differently • All promised transition to democracy • Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic transition • Generals Buhari (1983-85), Babangida (1985-93), and Abacha (1993-98) used repression and violence • All military & civilian regimes concentrated power in hands of the executive • Patrimonialism • Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system • Dispense government jobs and resources as rewards to political supporters • Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage system • Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to recurring coups

Bureaucracy • British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial period • Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracy • Civil service sector continued to grow after independence • Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common. • Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, Prebendalism.

Bureaucracy II • Parastatals • Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico) • Provide commercial and social welfare services • Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system • Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies • Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum • State Corporatism • Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure • In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism • Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions • Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

Legislature • A parliamentary system until 1979 • Replaced by a bicameral legislature • Nigerian legislature under military governments have had no power, under civilian government they have been unable to check power of the president • Legislature is a follower in the political process instead of a leader • Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contract

Legislature II • Senate • 109 Senators • 3 from each of the 36 states • 1 from Abuja district • Directly elected by popular vote • Senators are ethnically and religiously diverse • Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of 2003 elections • Approves high level presidential appointments • National Assembly • Formerly called House of Representatives • 360 member representatives • Single-member districts, elected by plurality vote • Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women (2003)

Judiciary • Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomy • Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system • Judicial review was suspended • Presidential cronies appointed as justices • Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory • Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Supreme Court • Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on British model • Cases: • In 1993, MshoodAbiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial system • In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officers

Political Elite • Military • Northeners dominate officer corps and are well-educated, having attended Sandhurst military academy • Traditional leaders of the various states • Positions are hereditary; they are well-educated and cosmopolitan • Well-educated professionals that make up civil service • Nigerian Youth Service Corps (NYSC) • University and graduate school students perform a year of service outside their state (usually in rural areas) • Successful business is also a path to elite status

Military • Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria • “Military in Government” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branch • “Military in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power. • Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders. • Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers through his patronage system • Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character. • Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflict

Public Policy • Top-down policy-making process. • Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelism • Loyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officials • State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes: • “Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys” • Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous • Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain

Economic Issues • Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealth • Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in poverty • Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officials • Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflict • In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing) • Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the south

Economic Issues II • Oil • Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage • OPEC member • Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s • Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop • DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus • Structural Adjustment • 1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis • World Bank & IMF involvement • Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy • Privatize parastatals • Cut government spending • “Shock Treatment” not very successful • Parastatals still under government control • Debt repayment had to be restructured

“Federal Character” • Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structure • Federalism promises power-sharing • Allows citizens more contact points with government • “Federal Character” • Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups • Nigerian Constitutional Provisions • Senators represent diverse states • Representatives elected from diverse districts • President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts • Negatives of Federalism • Federalism bloats bureaucracy • Promotes corruption within bureaucracy • Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups • Legislative branch suffers from gridlock • Competition over government resources

Federalism II • Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governments • Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resources • Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibited • Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of local and state governments • This “True Federalism Movement” not supported by Northerners • North has few resources and very little revenue to share • Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs

Federalism III • President Obasanjo had promised to create more states (36 currently) • Defuse ethnic-based political conflict (Federalist 10) • More state governments, however, cost money (which they don’t have) • Current federalism creates a lot of competition of money from government leading to a system called “chop-chop” politics or “log rolling” and “pork barrel” politics in the US

Reforms • Economic Reforms of the late 1990s • Further privatization of state-owned industry • Limitations on economic controls of the central government • Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury • Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria • Increase in public wages • Hope of decreasing instances of corruption • Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices

Political Institutions