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Versailles and the Consequences of World War I. World War I. 10 million dead. A whole generation of Europeans are dead. Confidence in the inevitable, uplifting future is shaken/destroyed. Old Empires are shattered Ottoman Empire is gone. Austrian-Hungarian Empire is gone.
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World War I • 10 million dead. • A whole generation of Europeans are dead. • Confidence in the inevitable, uplifting future is shaken/destroyed. • Old Empires are shattered • Ottoman Empire is gone. • Austrian-Hungarian Empire is gone. • Russian Empire is gone. • German Empire is gone. • Fatal, long-term decline of the French and British Empires (most unaware at the time)
Second International • Promised before the war that they would not support fighting. • The German Socialist Party, the largest of the parties in the Second International, ultimately votes to support the war effort to defeat the Czar. • Each national Socialist Party breaks and joins the war efforts of their respective nations, except the American Socialist Party. • Debs is arrested in 1917.
Revolutions in Europe! • General upsurge in radical beliefs caused by the suffering of the war. • The Russian Revolution sweeps the Bolsheviks to power. • Socialist, anti-war government comes to power under Lenin. • Many regard this Revolution as the beginning of the end for the Imperialist Capitalism governments of Europe/America.
Revolutions in Europe! Germany • Seeking to emulate the success of the Russian Revolution, leftist revolutions break out across Europe. • German Socialist Party • The Spartacus League, a leftist faction within the party had long been agitating. • -In 1917, the Kaiser abdicated. • -The German Social Democratic Party, the largest party in the Reichstag is nominally in control. • -The Spartacus League attempts to establish a worker’s state in an uprising. • -Conservative/moderate factions in the German Social Democratic Party turn to the military/reactionary organizations to put down their fellow socialists. Murder thousands of Socialists/Communists. • Civilian government has to negotiate the end of the war.
Revolutions in Europe! Italy • Italian unions take over all the factories in Italy. • Government is powerless to stop them. • Workers are agitating for a socialist/worker’s government. • Italian Communist Party is asked to intervene by many of the union leaders. • Communists are disorganized and confused. • Gramsci tries to convince the leadership to take power. Refuse. • Fascists are invited to take power to crush the union-uprising. Mussolini comes to power.
Revolutions in Europe! France • French Revolutions are somewhat less organized than are seen in Italy and Germany. • French Revolutionaries look to the Russian Revolution as an example: "great light coming from the East"
Failure to Spread the Revolution • Western powers blockade the USSR. • Soviet Union is alone and must decide how to proceed. • Excluded from Versailles as well.
John Maynard Keynes • British economist at the Versailles Peace Negotiations. • Argues that Germany should not be saddled with reparations. • The Economic Consequences of the Peace by John Maynard Keynes. • Keynes fired for being “a fool” by Lloyd George.
PARIS PEACE TREATIES • 14 Points • Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace • Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points • Thwarted by the Entente allies • Britain and France demanded reparations • Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war • Paris Peace Conference, 1919 • Allied leaders assembled in Paris • Germany was deliberately humiliated • Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered • Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism • Colonies of European Nations, China • Largely ignored • Envoys were often not even consulted
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS • Wilson’s 14th Point • Only part of the 14th Points enacted • US Senate did not ratify the treaty • USSR, former Central Power nations were not admitted • The League of Nations • Goal: International organization for nations to consult, avoid war • Reality: had no real power to enforce peace, punish aggressors • Reality: France, UK dominate • Colonies not represented
Rise of Nationalism in Colonies • Nationalist/Independent movements emerge in most colonies throughout the European colonial system. • Many colonial soldiers fight in Europe against their respective empire’s enemies. Why? • Europeans had long-claimed to be superior due to their culture and technological sophistication. War demonstrates that this is a lie!
RISE OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA, ASIA • World War I impacted colonies • Colonial Contribution • African, Asian troops conscripted for European armies • Battles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese troops • British conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army • Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials
Rise of Nationalism in Africa, Asia • During the course of the war • European vulnerability became evident • European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts • Administrative personnel were recalled • Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans • European/American racism meant that local colonized people’s concerns could not be addressed! • Ho Chi Minh attempts to enter Versailles, is turned away.
RISE OF NATIONALISM • To maintain support Europeans made many promises • Promised independence • But they often failed to fulfill them after the war • War cast doubts on claims of European superiority • Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements. • Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace • German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates • Ho Chi Minh attends the peace conference, seeking independence for Vietnam; Ignored. • Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France
INDIA • Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj • India colonized long before Africa, Asia • Was first to establish independence movements • Western-educated minorities organized politically • Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes • Indian National Congress • Regional associations of Western-educated Indians • Most often urbanized elite • Formed Indian National Congress party in 1885 • Primary function of early party was to present grievances to British • Most of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poor • Despite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of Indian identity
INDIA • Social Foundations of a Mass Movement • British economic and social policies • Helped the Congress party attract a mass following • Marginalized all Indians including elite • Indians • Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, high-salaried bureaucrats • Tolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods. • Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food supplies • Induced nationalists to blame the British policies • Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food to commercial crops.
Indian troops of the British Empire, near the front. 3rd Lahore Division.
INDIAN OPTIONS • The Rise of Militant Nationalism • Some nationalists such as B. G. Tilak emphasized Hindusim • Tilak, supporters used Hindu religious festivals as means of recruitment. • Tilak urged the boycott of British manufactured goods • Tilak's conservative Hinduism frightened moderates, Muslims, Sikhs • Tilak's support for violence led to his arrest, deportation • Some Hindus • Embraced terrorism as a means of ending British rule • Terrorist groups favored secret organizations • Targeted British officials and public buildings • British suppression, lack of mass support reduced threats • Peaceful schemes for protest drew support from Tilak, terrorists • Congress Party lawyers emerged as leaders of nationalist movement • All India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah • League founded in 1906 to represent Muslim interests • Jinnah joined in 1916 and helped bring Congress Party and League together
INDIAN OPTIONS • The Emergence of Gandhi and the Nationalist Struggle • India played a significant role in World War I • Even the nationalist leaders of India supported the war effort • Wartime inflation reduced standards of living among the Indian peasants • Produced famine in some regions. • Following the war • Nationalists were frustrated by the British refusal to move directly toward independence. • Initial promise of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 • Offset by the Rowlatt Act, which limited Indian civil rights. • Frustrations led to the Rise of Gandhi • Permitted Gandhi to build a nationwide protest against colonialism • Gandhi combined the qualities of a Hindu mystic with the acumen of a Western-educated lawyer • Both peasants and the middle classes supported his leadership • His boycotts, campaigns of civil resistance made him acceptable to both radical, moderate nationalists • As a Hindu mystic, Gandhi could mobilize widespread support for his movement
WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST • In the years after World War I • Ottoman rule collapsed • Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, Armenians • Only a small Turkish state built around Ankara remained • Constantinople placed under international control • Greeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state • Rise of Turkish Nationalism • Turks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armies • Drive Greek armies out of Asia Minor • Negotiates with Allies for return of Turkish lands • Abolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republic • Begins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, culture • Massive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East
WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST • Arabia • Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War I • Wahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics • Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influences • Religious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia • Arab Uprising against Turks • Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under Hashemite Emirs • After World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel pro-British Hashemite emirs • Create unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia • British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi mandates
NATIONALISM IN EGYPT • The British and Egypt • British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi Rebellion • Left the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlords • British left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy, defense • Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt. • Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works. • The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes. • Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countryside • The great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian land • Small landholders reduced to tenancy. • Resistance to the British administration of Egypt • Resistance by the elite • Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army, • Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classes • Journalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movement • Journalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes • Three nationalist parties were created
NATIONALISM IN EGYPT • To forestall more violent nationalist movements • The British granted a new constitution to Egypt • Allowed parliamentary representation • When World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and imposed martial law • Revolt in Egypt 1919 • Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the peasantry • British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace conferences • This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control • British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'dZaghlul • Between 1922 and 1936 • British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone • They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt • The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms.
ARAB MANDATES • Entente powers broke promises made to Arabs • Allies promised Arabs independent states in Middle East following War • Sikes-Pikot Treaty • Divided Middle East between Allied Nations • Gave Arab lands to European powers • Arabs expected independent Arab states • British and French forces occupied Ottoman empire • Created artificial states within the League of Nations • Called Mandates, placed under control of British, French • Allies were supposed to prepare Arabs for independence • French did not, British did
ARAB MANDATES • In Syria, Iraq, Lebanon • Arab resistance to the mandate system was common • British eventually placed Hashemite King on Iraqi throne • Palestine, Balfour Declaration and Zionism • Zionist movement largely Eastern Europe until 1894 • Zionists were Jews seeking to create Jewish homeland in Palestine • Theodor Herzl • Mobilized West European Zionism • Formed the World Zionist Organization • British Foreign Minister Balfour promised Zionists in 1917 support for Jewish homeland • Pogroms against Jewish communities accelerated migration to Palestine • Both Zionism, British takeover of Palestine seemed to violate assurances • Rising Arab opposition caused the British to limit Zionist settlement in Palestine • Zionists thus began to arm themselves in order to resist both British, Arab opposition • Arabs in Palestine remained without a voice concerning the fate of their region.
AFRICA • During World War I • Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes. • The war effort disrupted African economies • Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies • German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years • Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war • After the war • Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement • This led to strikes and civil disobedience • Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies • Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread • First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s • Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations • Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African movements
The TirailleursSenegalais were West African Colonial Army troops who fought for the French during World War I
AFRICA • In French Africa • A literary genre, négritude arose • Celebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudes • Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World Socialism • Movement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African diaspora • French Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain rights • Little involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French Europeans • In British colonies • British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates • Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African movement • Actual political parties were slow to emerge • Political associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for political reform • Educated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist movements
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Changing Realities • World War I undermined Europe's global dominance • At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world power • Rise of United States and Japan in world influence • First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly • Communism as Anti-Imperialism • Revolution broke out in Russia and the East • Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance • Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models • Socialism as Change • Socialists gained ground in the western democracies • Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Changes in Gender Roles • Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia • Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey • During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had • After World War I many Western states gave women the vote • The War Encouraged Economic Changes • Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant • Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene • Beginning of Decolonialization • The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun • Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war • Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope • Indian independence movement had gained in influence • Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before