Distinguishing Arguments from Non-arguments

1. Distinguishing Arguments from Non-arguments The aim of this tutorial is to help you identify arguments and distinguish them from various kinds of non-arguments. Chapter 2

2. An argument is a claim defended with reasons. • More precisely, a passage is an argument if and only if: • it is a group of two or more statements • (b) one of those statements (the conclusion) is claimed or intended to be supported by the other(s) (the premises).

3. Notice three important things that follow from this definition: 1.Arguments consist entirely of statements, i.e., sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false. Questions, commands, exclamations, and other kinds of nonstatements cannot be parts of arguments. (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.) 2. No single statement, however long, complex, or controversial, is an argument. Arguments always consist of at least two statements. 3. Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement followsfrom one or more other statements in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.

4. Five kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments are: • reports • unsupported assertions • Illustrations • conditional statements • explanations

5. This passage is a report. Planet Earth was much drier in the Triassic than it is now, and there were large deserts in inland areas. There were no flowering plants or grasses--they evolved much later. The most common trees were conifers, similar to today's pines. Other large plants included yews, ginkgos, and the palmlike cycads. Moisture-loving ferns and horsetails thrived by lakes and rivers. Philip Whitfield, Simon & Schuster's Children's Guide to Dinosaurs and Other PrehistoricAnimals, 1992) A report is a statement or group of statements intended simply to convey information about a subject. Keep in mind that reports of other people's arguments should be regarded as reports rather than as arguments.

6. This passage is an unsupported assertion. 1. Begin each day with a prayer. 2. Work hard. 3. Love your family. 4. Make light of your troubles. 5. Follow the Golden Rule. 6. Read from the Bible. 7. Show kindness. 8. Read worthwhile books. 9. Be clean and pure. 10. Have charity in your heart. 11. Be obedient and respectful. 12. End the day in prayer. These twelve rules, the "Quaker Dozen," were written long ago in a family Bible. But I believe they still fit today's problems. (Adapted from Olive Ireland Theen, "Grandfather's Quaker Dozen," in William Nichol, ed., A New Treasury of Words to Live By, 1959) An unsupported assertion is a statement or set of statements in which the speaker or writer expresses his or her personal opinion, but offers no reasons or evidence to back up that opinion.

7. This passage is an illustration. Almost all groups agree in holding other groups to be inferior to themselves. The American Indians looked upon themselves as the chosen people, specially created by the Great Spirit as an uplifting example for mankind. One Indian tribe called itself "The Only Men"; another called itself "Men of Men"; the Caribs said, "We alone are people." (Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage, 1935) An illustration is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true. The three examples cited in this passage are clearly insufficient to support the author's claim that "almost allgroups agree in holding other groups to be inferior to themselves." This indicates that the passage is intended to illustrate the author's claim, rather than to prove it.

8. This passage is a conditional statement. If Hal comes to the party than Sarah will come to the party. A conditional statement is an if-then statement. It is an assertion that such-and-such is true if something else is true. Conditional statements are not arguments because arguments always contain at least two statements and conditional statements consist of only a single statement: " Statement A is true on the condition that statement B is true." In the passage above, the speaker or writer isn't asserting that Hal will come to the party. Nor is she asserting that Sarah will come to the party. Rather, she is asserting that Sarah will come to the party provided that Hal comes to the party. This is a single statement, and thus is not an argument.

9. This passage is an explanation. I speak English because my parents sent me to boarding school in London. An explanation is a statement or set of statements that seeks to provide an account of why something has occurred or why something is the case. In this passage, the speaker or writer isn't trying to prove that he can speak English (that's obvious from the fact that he is speaking English!). Rather, he is trying to explain why he speaks English. In other words, arguments seek to provide evidence or reasons that something is the case; explanations seek to explain why something is the case.

10. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? For the person who called and said Larry Bird was better than Michael Jordan, wake up. No one was ever better than Michael Jordan, not even Kareem in his glory and not even Dr. J (From a newspaper call-in column) If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation?

11. Non-argument (unsupported assertion). For the person who called and said Larry Bird was better than Michael Jordan, wake up. No one was ever better than Michael Jordan, not even Kareem in his glory and not even Dr. J (From a newspaper call-in column) In this passage, the speaker simply asserts his opinion; he makes no effort to defend it.

12. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation? When a democratic society is correctly understood to be one in which the people live under constitutional government with universal suffrage and with the securing of human rights, economic as well as political, for all citizens, it must then be recognized that a democratic society is not yet fifty years old in this country (Mortimer J. Adler, The PaideiaProposal, 1984)

13. Argument. The writer is giving a reason to support his claim that democracy is less than fifty years old in the United States. When a democratic society is correctly understood to be one in which the people live under constitutional government with universal suffrage and with the securing of human rights, economic as well as political, for all citizens, it must then be recognized that a democratic society is not yet fifty years old in this country (Mortimer J. Adler, The PaideiaProposal, 1984)

14. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation? If a claim or position is being set forth and no other explicit or implicit statement is used to support it, then the spoken or written material in question is not an argument (T. Edward Damer, Attacking FaultyReasoning, 4th ed., 2001)

15. Non-argument (conditional statement). The writer is simply making an if-then statement, not giving reasons why some other statement should be believed. If a claim or position is being set forth and no other explicit or implicit statement is used to support it, then the spoken or written material in question is not an argument (T. Edward Damer, Attacking FaultyReasoning, 4th ed., 2001)

16. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation? Women my age know whom to blame for our own self-loathing, eating disorders and distorted body image: Barbie. So we're raising our vulnerable, body-conscious girls to beware the perpetually pointy-toed goddess with the impossible body and perfect face (Amy Dickinson, "Measuring Up," Time, November 20, 2000)

17. Non-argument (explanation). The writer isn't seeking to prove that women her age are raising their vulnerable, body-conscious daughters to beware of Barbie; rather, she's offering an explanation why they are doing so. Women my age know whom to blame for our own self-loathing, eating disorders and distorted body image: Barbie. So we're raising our vulnerable, body-conscious girls to beware the perpetually pointy-toed goddess with the impossible body and perfect face (Amy Dickinson, "Measuring Up," Time, November 20, 2000)

18. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation? Although you usually cannot eliminate the personal feelings that are influencing your perceptions, you can become aware of them and try to compensate for their bias. For instance, if you are asked to evaluate a group of people, one of whom is a good friend, you should try to keep these personal feelings in mind in order to make your evaluation as accurate as possible (John Chaffee, The Thinker's Way, 1998)

19. Although you usually cannot eliminate the personal feelings that are influencing your perceptions, you can become aware of them and try to compensate for their bias. For instance, if you are asked to evaluate a group of people, one of whom is a good friend, you should try to keep these personal feelings in mind in order to make your evaluation as accurate as possible (John Chaffee, The Thinker's Way, 1998) Non-argument (illustration). In this passage, the words "for instance" signal us that the author is trying to illustrate a claim, not to prove it.

20. Is this passage an argument or not an argument? If it is not an argument, is it a report, an unsupported assertion, an illustration, a conditional statement, or an explanation? In his book Natural Theology, which set forth the standard academic and theological wisdom of the early nineteenth century, William Paley had compared nature to a watch. If you chanced upon a watch lying alone on the ground, he wrote, and then examined its intricate structure, you could not help concluding that it had been made by an intelligent designer. It couldn't possibly be the product of mere chance. And yet, the natural world exhibits much more complex order than any watch. Thus, Paley concluded, there has to be an intelligent designer responsible for nature's fine arrangement (John F. Haught, Science and Religion, 1995)

21. [This is the end of the tutorial] In his book Natural Theology, which set forth the standard academic and theological wisdom of the early nineteenth century, William Paley had compared nature to a watch. If you chanced upon a watch lying alone on the ground, he wrote, and then examined its intricate structure, you could not help concluding that it had been made by an intelligent designer. It couldn't possibly be the product of mere chance. And yet, the natural world exhibits much more complex order than any watch. Thus, Paley concluded, there has to be an intelligent designer responsible for nature's fine arrangement (John F. Haught, Science and Religion, 1995) Non-argument (report). In this passage, the writer is reporting someone else's argument, not endorsing it as correct. Thus, the argument is a report rather than an argument. X