The World by the 1920s: Challenges to European Dominance

1. The World by the 1920s: Challenges to European Dominance Chapter 29 Focus Questions: How did WWI cause European decline worldwide? Who challenged European world dominance after WWI and Where?

2. Introduction • The 1920s were profoundly shaped by WWI and worldwide independence movements (from Imperialism) that were underway before the war • Four major patterns emerged: • 1) Western Europe’s recovery from the war was incomplete at best • 2) The US and Japan used WWI to vault them into being world superpowers • 3) Nationalists movements in key European colonies distracted the already war weary European powers • 4) Revolutions in countries such as Mexico, Russia and China shook the economic and political foundations of Imperialism (brief summaries, more on these next class) • Each of these developments brought into doubt western Europe’s assumptions about its place as the dominant global power

3. Western Europe’s Post War Disarray • WWI quickly shattered the people’s confidence in pre-war European government, which, in the post war, were unable to deal with mounting economic, social, political and even psychological issues • Once grand imperial governments in Germany and Austria-Hungary collapsed to the pressure • With the majority of fighting having been done over territory in Europe, several groups of people became displaced • The reality of 10 million deaths in Europe also took their toll • European governments now had NO MONEY since the failed to properly tax their citizens for war production, and debt to led to inflation and vast unemployment (precursor to depression)

4. The Roaring 20s in Europe • A brief period of recovery occurred…diplomatic tensions between nations eased and several signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, outlawing war forever between nations of Europe (pssh, yeah that really worked!) • Internal politics were mixed, as several leftist entities sought to emulate the Russian Revolution (Communism) in some nations, while Rightists focused on establishing authoritarian governments focused on national pride (Fascism) • Rampant consumerism (desire for autos, radios and other amenities) spurred economic growth in the short term • Cultural creativity in areas of film (the new medium), Cubism, writing (Realism) distracted the masses • Women in particular gained great rights, as nations gave them suffrage at the beginning of the decade…women also challenged Victorian norms and became crazed (drinking, smoking, etc.) while the reaction was to maintain domesticity for women as a whole

5. Fascism and New Nations • In 1919, Benito Mussolini formed the fascio di combattimento or union for struggle…advocated a strong central state with state control over all aspects of society while emphasizing national pride…conditions in post-war Italy drove people to follow this new government (labor unrest, lack of territory, inept parliament) • Mussolini used these issues to gain support…once in power he eliminated rivals, used propaganda and speeches to spur nationalist fervor and eliminated privatization • Meanwhile, in Eastern Europe, new nations were formed as a result of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary Empire…most struggled to find political stability and move beyond agriculture in the economic sector • All spurned Communism while reaching out to western nations for help (little to be had)…internal strife amongst ethnic groups coupled with agricultural price collapses during the Depression severely crippled these new nations, which became ripe for conquering by larger neighbors (Germany, Italy, Soviet Union)

6. The Rise of the US (1920s) • While settler societies in Canada and Australia became autonomous (self-sustaining) during this period, the United States moved to the forefront as the world’s major superpower • Despite serious attempts to remain isolated (rejection of Versailles Treaty of WWI), the US found itself as the premiere provider of industrial consumer goods and agricultural food commodities during this period, largely due to the innovations of corporate thinkers (Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller) and government friendly business policies • Add to this, the US took the lead in the sciences and the arts during this period, producing more of the world’s most important advances (assembly line, refrigeration, synthetic fibers, etc.) and experimenting in a variety of newer art mediums (Jazz, “talkies”, dances)

7. The Japanese Empire • As European imperialism waned in East Asia, Japan stepped in…fueled by zaibatsus and jingoist/militarist government policies, the Japanese economy grew • The Japanese industrial system converted from simple light industries (silk) to expansion in mechanical (ships, planes, cars), electric and steel industries • A better standard of living spurred huge population growth and a demand for agricultural production to increase…territorial expansion into east Asia brought relief to food supplies…the Japanese government focused on strict education programs, with universal compulsory education required through secondary school by 1925. • Japan did have to dodge the oncoming issues associated with the Great Depression, coupled with ongoing resistance to assimilate outside cultural beliefs (Western ideas) and rapid population growth leading to overcrowding in an already cramped space

8. Nationalist Challenges in India (Ch. 28) • British exploitation of the Indian populace reached its peak by WWI…many saw themselves drawn into military service for the British Empire while others grew tired of subjugation under economic exploitation…early nationalist leaders such as B.G. Tilak proposed violence in response to subjugation, but Britain was able to suppress it • In 1919, many peaceful protests broke out across India…one at Amritsar turned into a massacre…it sparked militant nationalists in India to begin to demand greater independence from the British crown…Britain responded with reforms (Montagu-Chelmsford of 1919) which gave Indian legislators greater administrative power…However, Britain also passed the Rowlatt Act which severely limited civil rights • Mohandas Gandhi emerged as the new Nationalist leader in the 1920s…he promoted Hindu beliefs at the center of his movement (ahimsa, satyagraha)…he proposed that the way to weaken British control was through non-violent civil disobedience, refuse to support the imperialist machine

9. Middle Eastern Nationalism (Ch. 28) • The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire as a result of WWI led to a question of how Middle Eastern territory should be handled…many societies in the region looked to Europe to help rebuild and restructure while other maintained self-sufficiency • In Turkey, the skilled military leader Mustafa Kemal (aka Ataturk) successfully defended imperialist territorial expansions from Italy and Greece to establish a modern Turkish republic on Asia Minor • Meanwhile, sheiks/sharifs in Damascus, Beruit and Baghdad looked to Europeans to solve their territorial issues…post WWI military occupation led to the creation of artificial borders which were drawn by Europeans through several mandates, angering several ME leaders to no avail • The greatest issue surrounded Palestine…Zionists sought a Jewish state in Palestine for Jews being expelled from Europe (pogroms)…European powers pledged this state through the Balfour Declaration, which was vehemently opposed by all Arabs…nonetheless, as long as Europe continued to directly occupy the Middle East in the 1930s and 1940s, Jews flooded into their new homeland

10. Egyptian Nationalism (Ch. 28) • Egypt’s nationalist movement was unique because it preceded European domination…remember, Egypt revolted against Ottoman rule (C26) in the late 19th C, prompting Britain to intervene and occupy • Britain basically replaced the Ottomans as masters of Egypt…decades of occupation led to violence (Dinshawai incident of 1906) • In 1913, the British were pressured into creating a constitution for Egypt, however, representation was limited to men of wealth (i.e. those in collusion with Britain) • WWI took a heavy toll on the Egyptian people as Britain declared martial law in Egypt while focusing its entire attention on protecting the Suez Canal from foreign takeover…add to this, food supplies in Egypt were drained mostly by Britain’s military force, leading to widespread food shortages/starvation • Egypt was now ripe for revolt, and in 1919, it happened…Egyptian delegates were denied right to represent their case for self-determination at the Versailles peace conference and they called for public protest…students and women (yes, women) led the demonstrations and a new party, the Wafd came to power during the rebellion • Britain began a slow withdraw in stages by 1922, eventually remaining only to protect the canal by 1936…HOWEVER, despite the loss of direct occupation by Britain, the new Wafd party did little to improve Egypt over the next few decades, as widespread corruption and collusion with British interests continued…most of Egypt’s farmland was still in the hands of less than 6% of the population…it will not be until 1952 when sweeping reforms were brought in by socialist leader Gamal Abdul Nasser

11. African Nationalism (Ch. 28) • Likewise with India and Egypt, in Africa, the educated elite and traditional rulers are in cahoots with European imperialists…WWI saw both conflict in Africa (as allies removed Italy and Germany from possessions) as well as raw material and military labor exploitation throughout the continent • Continued promises of better living conditions and better employment for Africans went unmet, with several members of the elite breaking away from European collusion…widespread strikes and protest broke out in Africa in the 1920s • Outside forces from the US (WEB DuBois and Marcus Garvey) led pan-African movements from America, attempting to get many former slave families to return to Africa to reclaim their heritage…in French West Africa, the negritude movement sparked conflict regarding racial/social stereotypes in Africa…it reminded Africans that once upon a time Africa was ruled by societies that promoted greater equality (for women especially), where all citizens were cared for, etc. (well, forget the fact that there was slavery) • In response to pressures, colonial powers did give greater autonomy to newly formed nationalist governments in some areas (not settler areas like Kenya or Rhodesia)…however, it would not be until after WWII that African independence efforts were kicked into full gear.

12. Mexican Revolution: A Summary • Liberals (like Francisco Madero) demanded political and land reform from the Diaz regime (who refused changed)…several characters (Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, Victoriano Huerta and Alvaro Obregon) took it upon themselves to raise armies to replace the Diaz regime • Obregon was the eventual winner…a constitution in 1917 promised land reform (but did not happen fast enough) and greater education (more of a success) • Mexico post-revolution experienced nationalism and “indigenism”, as natives and mestizos demanded more…Marxism also had some impacts demanding secularism…conservative Catholics launched the Cristeros movement to retain their power in Mexico • By the 1930s, a political party known as the PRI (Party of the Institutionalized Revolution) took control…though Mexico was now a multiparty democracy, the PRI dominated Mexico with caudillo-like rule until the 21st century

13. Russian Revolution: A Summary • Failures by the czarist leadership to defend Russia in WWI coupled with famines and worker unrest caused the revolution…a newly developed council of workers called the soviet demanded the dissolution of the czarist regime and the institution of democratic rule…this happened, but for a short time under Alexander Kerensky (February 1917) • In October 1917, another revolt occurred expelling Kerensky’s liberals and installing Lenin’s Bolsheviks to power • An internal civil war raged between RED (Communist) and WHITE (liberal and czarist) factions from 1918-1921, with the Communist REDS winning • Lenin set out the develop the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) by developing a New Economic Policy based on 5 year plans and state control and creating the Supreme Soviet based on one party, but still elected.

14. Chinese Revolution: A Summary • In 1912, the abdication of the last Chinese emperor Puyi set the stage for the early battle for China between Democratic factions (Sun Yat-Sen) and warlord factions (Yuan Shikai) as well as the constant fear of invasion from Japan • Increased Japanese encroachment led to the May Fourth Movement, demanding reform and a decrease in foreign involvement and greater democratization…warlords would not budge and foreign involvement increased…as a result, some educated students (like Mao Zedong) turned to Communism • Sun Yatsen’s Guomindang (Democratic National Party) seized power from the warlords in the 1920s and under the leadership of Sun’s successor, Chiang Kai Shek, aligned with the Communists, then turned on them, seeking their destruction by the end of the decade • Mao knew that the only way to gain control of China and to solve the problems of the nation was to make promises to the peasants…when Mao was escaping persecution from the Chiang’s force on the Long March, he made sure to preach Communist ideology to the peasants • In the end, the Guomindang and the Communists had to once again join force to fight the invading Japanese in the 1930s and early 1940s…only to go right back at each other’s throats once World War II was over.

15. Key Terms… • Kellogg-Briand Pact: A multinational treaty sponsored by American and French diplomats that outlawed war; an example of the optimism that existed during part of the 1920s. • Interwar period: The 1920s and 1930s, shaped by the results of World War I. • The Roaring Twenties: Great social and economic changes were the hallmark of this decade. • Cubist movement: Artistic style rendering familiar objects in geometric shapes; headed by Pablo Picasso, who was influenced by African art. • Fascism: Nationalist political form that featured an authoritarian leader, aggressive foreign policy, and government-guided economics; started in Italy. • Benito Mussolini: Founder and dictator of the Fascist Party in Italy.

16. Key Terms… • Settler societies: Australia, Canada, and New Zealand; forged separate “autonomous communities” within the British empire, called the British Commonwealth of Nations. • Zaibatsu: In Japan, industrial corporations with close government cooperation that expanded rapidly in this era into shipbuilding and other heavy industries. • PorfirioDíaz: Mexico’s long-serving dictator who resisted political reforms; his policies triggered the Mexican Revolution. • Pancho Villa: Mexican revolutionary who led guerrilla fighting in the North; pursued unsuccessfully by the U.S. government in 1913. • Emiliano Zapata: Mexican revolutionary who led guerrilla fighting in the South; motto was “Tierra y Libertad”; demandedlandreform. • Soldaderas: Women who were guerrilla fighters in the Mexican Revolution.

17. Key Terms… • Victoriano Huerta: Sought to impose a Díaz-type dictatorship; forced from power by Villa and Zapata. • Alvaro Obregon: Emerged as Mexico’s leader at the end of the revolution; wrote a new constitution that promised land reforms. • Lazaro Cardenas: Mexican president who enacted land reform and rural public education. • Diego Rivera and Jose Clemente Orozco: World-renowned artists who depicted glorified versions of Mexico’s Indian heritage and potential Marxist future in murals. • Cristeros: Conservative peasant movement in the 1920s in Mexico; backed by the Catholic church and many politicians; resisted the secularization of the culture and government. • Party of the Industrialized Revolution (PRI): This Mexican political party dominated politics from the 1930s to the end of the century..

18. Key Terms… • Alexander Kerensky: Leader of the provisional government in Russia after the fall of the tsar; kept Russia in World War I and resisted major reforms; overthrown by Bolsheviks at the end of 1917. • Bolsheviks: Violent, radical wing of the Social Democrats in Russia, led by Vladimir Lenin; took power from provisional government; later renamed “Communists.” • Russian Civil War (1918-1921): Millions died in the struggle between the Reds (pro- Communist forces) and Whites (an amalgam of non Communists); the Reds won, largely because of the organizational skills of Leon Trotsky. • Leon Trotsky: Lenin deputy who organized the Red Army during the civil war and later lost a power struggle to Stalin. • New Economic Policy: Lenin’s temporary measure that allowed some capitalism within a Communist framework; food production increased under this program; ended by Stalin.

19. Key Terms… • Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: Name of the Moscow-based multiethnic Communist regime from 1923 to 1991. • Supreme Soviet: Parliament under the U.S.S.R. that had many of the trappings but few of the powers of its Western counterparts. • Joseph Stalin: Assistant to Lenin who beat out Trotsky for undisputed control of the U.S.S.R. after Lenin’s death; installed the nationalistic “socialism in one country” program, collectivization, and widespread purges. • Sun Yat-sen: Western-educated leader of the Revolutionary Alliance, the Guomindang, and at times, China, in the 1910s and 1920s; struggled with warlords for control of the nation. • Yuan Shikai: Chinese warlord who was that country’s leader from 1912 to 1916; he hoped to establish himself as the ruler of a dynasty to replace the Qing; forced from power

20. Key Terms… • May Fourth Movement: Popular 1919 uprising in China against Japanese interference and for Western-style government that featured intellectuals and students as its leaders; sank under the weight of problems facing China in the early 20th century. • Li Dazhao: Headed Marxist study circle at University of Beijing; saw peasants as harbingers of Communist revolution in China; influenced Mao Zedong. • Mao Zedong: Leader of Chinese Communist Party and eventual dictator of that country. • Guomindang: Nationalist party in China; it was the Communist Party’s greatest rival, yet the Guomindangand Communists forged an alliance against Japanese aggression; the ruling party in mainland China until 1949, it failed to implement most of the domestic programs it proposed.

21. Key Terms… • Whampoa Military Academy: Established in China with Soviet help; it gave the Nationalists a military dimension previously missing; first leader was Chiang Kai-shek. • Chiang Kai-shek: Successor to Sun as leader of the Nationalists; fierce opponent of the Communists, yet he formed an alliance with them to fight Japan. • Long March: To escape the Nationalists, 90,000 Mao supporters traveled thousands of miles in 1934 to remote regions; solidified Mao’s leadership and created much of his myth. • Syndicalism: Economic and political system based on the organization of labor; imported in Latin America from European political movements; militant force in Latin American politics. • Mexican Revolution: Fought over a period of almost 10 years from 1910; resulted in ouster of PorfirioDíaz from power; opposition forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.

22. Key Terms… • Francisco Madero: (1873 – 1913) Moderate democratic reformer in Mexico; proposed moderate reforms in 1910; arrested by PorfirioDíaz; initiated revolution against Díazwhen released from prison; temporarily gained power, but removed and assassinated in 1913. • Mexican Constitution of 1917: Promised land reform, limited foreign ownership of key resources, guaranteed the rights of workers, and placed restrictions on clerical education; marked formal end of Mexican Revolution. • Red Army: Military organization constructed under leadership of Leon Trotsky, Bolshevik follower of Lenin; made use of people of humble background. • Comintern: International office of communism under U.S.S.R. dominance established to encourage the formation of Communist parties in Europe and the world.

23. Key Terms… • Lázaro Cárdenas: President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940; responsible for redistribution of land, primarily to create ejidos, or communal farms; also began program of primary and rural education. • Great Depression: Worldwide economic collapse that began in late 1929 and continued until the outset of World War II • Socialism in one country: Stalin’s program to build a self-sufficient Communist state based on industrial production. • Popular Front: Liberal, socialist, and Communist parties in France that forged a short-lived alliance in the 1930s. • New Deal: The United States’ answer to the Great Depression, consisting of government assistance to people affected by the crisis and of government reform of economic institutions. • Fascism: Created in Italy by Mussolini and expanded in Germany by Hitler, this political and economic movement promoted socialist programs combined with authoritarianism.

24. Key Terms… • Nazi: Hitler’s National Socialist German Workers’ Party; under the guise of political unity, the Nazis forged a totalitarian state. • Gestapo: Hitler’s secret police that imprisoned and killed his real and imagined opposition. • Anschluss: Hitler’s union with Austria. • Appeasement: Britain and France’s policy of compromise with Hitler and Mussolini. • Spanish Civil War: Fascists led by General Franco fought supporters of the existing republic in the 1930s; Germany and Italy aided the victorious Franco. • Import substitution industrialization: Cut off from supplies it had imported before the Great Depression, Latin America began to produce for itself through the rapid expansion of industrialization.

25. Key Terms… • Syndicalism: In Latin America, organizing labor for the purpose of gaining control of political power. • Tragic Week: In Argentina in 1919, the government brutally repressed labor strikes. • Corporatism: In Latin America, a movement aimed at curbing capitalism and Marxism that proposed using the state as a mediator between different social and economic groups. • Getulio Vargas: President of Brazil who imposed a pro-Western Fascist-like authoritarian regime. • Juan Peron: Argentina’s leader who, like Vargas, nationalized key industries and led through a combination of charisma and intimidation. • Training to endure hardship: Term used to describe the Japanese policy established in Korea to induce the people there to cooperate with the conqueror’s wishes

26. Key Terms… • Kulaks: The relatively wealthy peasants in the Soviet Union who were starved and murdered by the millions under Stalin’s direction. • Collectivization: Soviet policy of eliminating private ownership of farmland and creating large state-run farms. • Five-Year Plan: State planning of industrial production in the Soviet Union. • Socialist Realism: School of art in the U.S.S.R. that emphasized heroic idealizations of workers, soldiers, and peasants. • Politburo: “Political Bureau” in the U.S.S.R. that was titularly the executive committee but in reality was, especially under Stalin, a rubber-stamp organization.