Culture, Personality & Migration

1. Culture, Personality & Migration Professor Dinesh Bhugra Professor of Mental Health & Cultural Diversity Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London

2. Conflict of Interest None

3. Culture is defined as… • That complex which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Taylor, 1871)

4. Culture is defined as… • A common heritage or set of beliefs, norms, and values. It refers to the shared, and largely learned, attributes of a group of people...a system of shared meanings (Surgeon General, 2001)

5. Culture is defined as… • …patterned ways of thinking, feeling and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly be symbols constituting the distinctive achivements of human groups (incuding artefacts, traditional ideas and attached values)… (Kluckholm, 1951)

6. Culture is both subjective (a cultural group’s characteristic way of perceiving the man made part of its environment) and objective (Triandis, 1972)

7. Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (Hofstede, 2001)

8. Multiple Cultural Identities • Cultural identity involves at its core a sense of attachment or commitment to a cultural group and is thus both a cultural and a psychological phenomenon (Berry, 2007)

9. Cultural Identities relate to: • Gender • Religion • Language • Other factors, such as dress, diet, taboos, even social class Influence: beliefs, values, practices

10. Study Location Diagnosis Age Std UK Natives UK African Caribbeans Ratio Hemsi 1967 Camberwell + Lambeth Own from case notes + 2.7 13.1 4.9 Cochrane 1977 England + Wales Mental Health Enquiry 0 *M 8.7 *F 8.7 29.0 32.3 3.3 3.7 Cochrane + Bal 1987 England + Wales Mental Health Enquiry + M 1.2 F 1.2 3.9 3.3 3.3 2.8 Carpenter + Brockington 1980 Manchester Hospital + 2.0 11.1 5.6 Dean et al. 1981 SE England Own from assessment + M 1.1 F 1.0 5.5 5.3 5.0 5.3 UK African Caribbean Immigrants and UK Natives Incidence Rates per 1000 for Schizophrenia * Prevalence Rates

11. Study Location Diagnosis Age Std UK Natives UK African Caribbean Ratio Littlewood + Lipsedge 1981 Hackney Own from case notes + 1.9 4.5 2.4 McGovern + Cope 1987 Birmingham Hospital + Age 16-29 1.4 30-64 1.1 11.7 4.7 8.4 4.3 Harrison et al 1988 Nottingham Own from assessment + 16-29 2.0 30-44 1.6 29.1 19.7 14.6 12.3 King et al 1994 North London Own from assessment + 2.0 8.9 4.4 Bhugra et al 1995 West and South London Own from PSE assessment + 2.96 6.88 2.2 UK African Caribbean Immigrants and UK Natives Incidence Rates per 1000 for Schizophrenia

12. Cochrane and Bal (1987) Rates of admission for schizophrenia in the UK are higher for the Irish, Indian Pakistani, and Caribbean born, compared to the native. In general the foreign born have rates of admission (except for Pakistani women) which are higher. Pakistani women are said to drop out of formal mental health system.

13. Hypotheses • Misdiagnosis • Ethnic Liability • Selective Migration • Obstetric Complications • Stress of migration • Cannabis use • Stress of Socio-Economic Disadvantage

14. Additional Hypotheses • Ethnic Density • Concepts of Self • Achievement – Aspiration • Cultural Congruity

15. Idiocentric individuals in individualistic cultures will disregard the needs of communities, families or workgroups and allocentric individuals will feel concerned about their communities and in groups Idiocentric individuals in collectivist societies will yield to group norms less than allocentric persons in individualistic cultures Bhugra (2005)

16. Hofstede (1980/2001) Cultures have 5 dimensions: • Collectivist/individualistic • Masculine/feminine • Power distance • Uncertainty avoidance • Long term orientation

17. Individualism:Refers to societies where the ties between individuals are loose and everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and their immediate family Collectivism:People from birth onwards are integrated into strong cohesive in-groups which throughout their lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty

18. Individualism:I-ness. I consciousness, autonomy, emotional independence, individual initiative right to privacy, pleasure seeking, financial security, need for specific friendship Collectivism:We-ness. We consciousness, collective identity, emotional interdependence, group solidarity, sharing duties and obligations, need for stable and predetermined friendships, group decisions (Hofstede 1980, 1984)

19. Collectivism: Traditionalism • Common good/social harmony • Individuals bound by relationships • Others put first before themselves • Concession/compromise • Justice and institutions are seen as an extension of the family • Paternalism and legal moralism I am kind. I think…us. My family expect me to be kind

20. Collectivism as Concern • Consideration of implications of one’s own decisions • Sharing of material resources • Charing of non-material resources • Susceptibility to social influences • Self-presentation and face work • Sharing of outcomes • Feeling of involvement in others’ lives

21. Individualism: • Related to high levels of GNP • High levels of crime, suicide, divorce, child abuse, emotional stress and physical and mental illness • Having substantial levels of migration, most social, and geographical mobility

22. Idiocentric • Personal focus • Intimacy issues • Authoritarianism • Independence • Allocentric • Good interpersonal relationships • Harmony • Intimacy • Acceptance of authorities • Interdependence • Loyalty • Reliability

23. Idiocentric individuals in individualistic cultures will disregard the needs of communities, families or workgroups and allocentric individuals will feel concerned about their communities and in groups • Idiocentric individuals in collectivist societies will yield to group norms less than allocentric persons in individualistic cultures

24. People from individualistic cultures are good at entering and leaving new social groups • Idiocentric individuals have great skills in forming new in groups and superficially appear more sociable

25. Idiocentric individuals from collectivist societies will settle down better in individualistic societies • Allocentric individuals from collectivist societies, if socially isolated or alienated, will have difficulty in settlingdown in individualistic societies

26. Masculine vs Feminine • Sex – biological function • Gender – social function Male assertiveness vs female nurturance patterns Gender role socialisation dictated by cultures

27. More Important for Men • Advancement • Earnings • Training • Up-to-dateness (Hofstede, 2001)

28. More Important for Women • Friendly atmosphere • Position security • Physical conditions • Manger • Cooperation

29. Masculinity Index • Japan • German speaking countries • Caribbean – Latin American countries • Venezuela • Mexico • Colombia • Italy • Anglo(phone) countries – US, UK, Ireland, Australia, NZ (Hofstede, 2001)

30. High Feminine Index • Latin – France, Spain, Peru, El Salvador, Chile, Uruguay, Guatemala, Portugal, Costa Rica, former Yugoslavia • Extreme and Finland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Netherlands (Hofstede, 2001)

31. Low Masculinity • Relationship orientation • Quality of life and people • Stress on who you are • Work in order to live • Minimum social and emotional role differentiation • Modest • Sympathy for the weak (Hofstede, 2001)

32. High Masculinity • Ego orientation • Money is important • Stress on what you do • Live in order to work • Ambitious/assertive • Sympathy for the strong (Hofstede, 2001)

33. Low Masculinity Index (in the family) • Both sexes allowed to cry, neither fights • Both modest • Positive feelings about family and home • Friends and acquaintances are important • Parents earn children’s love and respect • Flexible family concepts (Hofstede, 2001)

34. Low Masculinity Index(at school) • Friendliness in teachers appreciated • Students’ social adaptations are important • Failing is minor accident • Public praise to weak students • Socialised to avoid agression • Equal attention to boys and girls (Hofstede, 2001)

35. Power Mulder (1977) defines power as: ‘the potential to determine or direct (to a certain degree) the behaviour of another person or other persons more so than the other way around’

36. Power distance is the degree of inequality in power between a less powerful individual and a more powerful individual when they both belong to the same social system (Mulder, 1977). Hofstede (2001) argues that power distance between boss and subordinate is dictated by the culture.

37. Low Power Distance • All should be interdependent • Minimal inequality • Legitimate use of power • Equal rights • Stress on rewards • Redistribution of power changes the system (Hofstede, 2001)

38. Low Power Distances • Children are treated as equals • Children should enjoy leisure • Children play no role in security of parents • Teachers – students • Decentralised decision • Flat organisation pyramids • Consultative leadership (Hofstede, 2001)

39. High Power Distance Index • Malaysia • Guatemala • Panama • Philippines • Mexico • Venezuela • Arab countries • Ecuador (Hofstede, 2001)

40. Low Power Distance Index • Finland • Norway • Sweden • Ireland • New Zealand • Denmark • Israel • Austria (Hofstede, 2001)

41. Uncertainty Avoidance Anticipating events in the distant future…long-term strategies and avoiding requirements that they anticipate future reactions through negotiated environment…and plan. (Cyert & March, 1963)

42. Uncertainty Avoidance Index • Rule orientation • Employment stability • Stress (Hofstede, 2001)

43. Countries with High Index • Greece • Portugal • Guatemala • Uruguay • Belgium • El Salvador (Hofstede, 2001)

44. Low Uncertainty Avoidance • Lower work stress • Lower anxiety levels • Controlled emotions • More subjective well-being • Feelings of shared happiness • Less hesitation in changing employers • Less resistance to change • Acceptance of foreigners as managers (Hofstede, 2001)

45. Low Uncertainty Avoidance • Parents control emotions • Higher satisfaction with home life • Few rules • Non-traditional gender roles accepted • Open-ended learning • Parents’ ideas sought by teachers • Encouraged innovation (Hofstede, 2001)

46. Long-term Orientation • Persistence • Ordering relationships by status • Thrift • Sense of shame (Hofstede, 2001)

47. Countries with Long-Term Orientation • China • Hong Kong • Taiwan • Japan • South Korea • Brazil • India • Thailand • Singapore (Hofstede, 2001)

48. Low Long-Term Orientation • Quick results expected • Status important • Shame is uncommon • Respect for tradition • Reciprocated greetings • Leisure important • Persistence not important (Hofstede, 2001)

49. Low Long-Term Orientation • All siblings equal • Living with in-laws a problem • Marriage should last • Short term results • Family and business separate • Meritocracy • Probabilistic thinking • Need for cognitive consistence • Analytic thinking (Hofstede, 2001)

50. What is a Migrant? • Someone who changes their place of residence for any purpose or for any period of time • Legal classification • Characteristics of migration • Motivation of migration