Gordon Harold, PhD Alexander McMillan Chair in Childhood Studies Professor of Psychology

1. Gordon Harold, PhD Alexander McMillan Chair in Childhood Studies Professor of Psychology Social Service Providers Aotearoa Annual Conference 2010 How Inter-Parental Conflict Affects Children’s Psychological development: Theory, Research and Practice Implications

2. Presentation Overview Family factors and children’s psychological development A review of family theory and research Role of the inter-parental relationship A process-oriented vs. outcome-oriented approach Highlighting mechanisms underlying stress-distress links Implications for intervention Examining the effects of inter-parental conflict on children’s development Evidence from research studies Study 1: Does inter-parental conflict affect children’s psychological well being or vice versa? Study 2: What mechanisms explain the effects of inter-parental conflict on children psychological well being? Summary and Conclusions Implications for practice and policy

3. Family Factors and Children’s Development How are children affected by families Internalising symptoms Externalising problems Social competence Academic attainment Physical health What family factors affect children (a focus on environment) Family type (transition) Economic strain Parent psychopathology Negative parenting Inter-parental conflict and violence

4. Going Beyond Outcomes to Highlighting Processes Father Psychological Distress Parent-Child Problems Economic or Work pressure Interparental Conflict Child Problems Mother Psychological Distress Conger and colleagues 1989-2007

5. See (Our World)…..

6. Through Children’s Eyes…

7. Conflict as Context Domestic violence 275 million children worldwide (matter of definition) 40%-60% of children show clinically significant emotional and behavioural problems Parental separation and divorce 30%-50% of new marriages end in divorce (UK, USA, NZ) 50 – 60% of children born in 1990’s will live in single-parent family In 2008, 43% of all marriages dissolved in NZ involved children under 17 years ‘Normal’ households 10%-20% of children living in households not marked as domestically violent or where parental separation has occurred show clinically significant emotional and behavioural problems What types of problems do we see and why?

8. How Children are Affected by Inter-Parental Conflict Children of all ages are affected by exposure to conflict between parents 6 months to 16 years Physiological arousal, anxiety, depression, aggression, hostility, IQ deficits, low academic attainment, poor peer relations, AB problems Conflict across the continuum Low warmth (silence) – High hostility (violence) Direct versus Indirect effects of inter-parental conflict on children IP Conflict Child Problems IP Conflict Parenting Child Problems Passive victim or active agent? What are the effects of witnessing inter-parental conflict on children?

9. Effects of Witnessing Conflict on Children Brain development Neurobiological deficits (HPA axis) Emotional development Anger, fear, shame, guilt, worry Cognitive development Attributions of self and others, expectations of conflict Social and Behavioural development Aggressiveness, interpretation of intent, expectations of others, peer/romantic relations

10. Evidence from Research Studies

11. Does inter-parental conflict affect children’s psychological development? Mannering, A., Harold, G.T., Leve, L et al., Longitudinal Associations Between Marital Instability and Child Sleep Problems across Infancy and Toddlerhood. Child Development, (in press).

12. Conflict as ‘Cause’?? • Two fundamental questions • Direction of effects?? • Does inter-parental conflict affect children’s psychological well being or does children’s psychological well being affect levels of inter-parental conflict? • The role of genes?? • Is it the case that any association between inter-parental conflict and child outcomes is explained by common genetic factors? • Gene-environment correlation • Couple hostility = child hostility??

13. Early Growth and Development Study (2003- present) Sample 361 sets of adoptive children, adoptive parents, and birth parents Sample retention: Adoptive family = 95% Birth parent = 92% Families assessed at child age 9-, 18-months of age; ongoing assessments at age 27-months, 4.5 years, 6 years and 7 years Nationally-representative sample of families who made domestic adoption placements in the United States between 2003-2006 Method Videotaped Observation – adoptive families Child temperament, parent-child interactions, marital interactions video recorded in the home during 3-hour home visits at each wave. Coding for these tasks is ongoing Questionnaire – adoptive parents Couple relationship, parent-child relationship, symptoms of depression and anxiety, family economic conditions, styles of family interaction, parenting style, children’s emotional and behavioural well-being, child sleep problems Questionnaire – birth parents Couple relationship, diagnosis and symptoms of psychopathology, drug use, economic conditions, life stress, temperament

14. Examining Change Longitudinally Time 1 (2003) Time 2 (2004) Couple Relationship Instability Couple Relationship Instability Children’s Sleep Problems Children’s Sleep Problems

15. Summary and Implications • Directions of effects?? • Family influences predict child symptoms, not the other way around • The role of genes?? • Sample is an adoption sample • Children and parents are not genetically related • Association cannot be explained by underlying common genetic factors • Effects cannot be explained by passive gene-environment correlation • Does not rule out evocative gene-environment correlation • Inter-parental conflict is a salient environmental factor for children’s development • What factors explain inter-parental conflict effects on development? • Role of negative parenting as underlying explanatory mechanism? • Moving towards environmental specificity in the study of intergenerational transmission of psychopathology (mental health)

16. What Mechanisms Explain the Effects of Inter-Parental Conflict on Children? Conflict Between Couples and Children’s Academic Attainment Harold, G.T., Aitken, J., Shelton, K.H. (2007). Inter-parental conflict and children’s academic attainment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.

17. South Wales Family Study (1999-2004) Sample 542 children, parents and teachers (78% = two-parent; 9% = stepparent; 11% + 2% = single-parent) Three year panel study 1999, 2000, 2001 (+ 2004 GCSE) Sample retention: Parent = 71% (N = 387); Child and Teacher = 90% (N = 488) Representative of families living in England and Wales - family composition, ethnic representation, economic diversity (2000). Method Interview Family communication, problem solving, family relations etc., Questionnaire Parents: Couple relationship, parent-child relationship, symptoms of depression and anxiety, family economic conditions, styles of family interaction, parenting style, children’s emotional and behavioural well-being Children: Parent relationship, parent-child relationship, family economic conditions, styles of family interaction, emotional and behavioural well-being, family and school support, substance use, Teachers: Child emotional and behavioural well being, academics

18. Measures Inter-parental Conflict (1999) Parent report: Spouse Hostility, Iowa Youth and Families Project Ratings Scales (Melby et al., 1993; =.88) and the O’Leary-Porter scale (Porter & O’Leary, 1980; =.86). Child report: Conflict Properties subscale of the CPIC (frequency, intensity and resolution of conflict between parents; Grych, Seid & Fincham, 1992; =.79). Negative Parenting Behaviour (2000) Child report: Rejection-Withdrawal subscale (CRPBI; Margolies & Weintraub, 1977; =.91). Children’s Perceptions of Self-Blame for Inter-parental Conflict (2000) Child report: Self-Blame subscale of the CPIC (Grych et al., 1992; =.89). This subscale measures the extent to which children blame themselves or feel responsible for conflict between parents. Teacher Reports of Children’s Aggression (1999, 2000) Teachers completed the aggression subscale (=.94) of the Teacher Report Form of the Child Behavior Checklist (TRF CBCL; Achenbach, 1991). Children’s Academic Attainment (2001) Standardised examination grades (Key Stage Three) in three core subject areas in the UK (English, Math, Science). Key Stage Three exams are tests in core subjects that British school students sit at the end of their third year of secondary school (age 13 or 14 years). Grades were recoded (7=Lo, 1=Hi), representing an ordinal index of low academic attainment.

19. Age 11 years Age 12 years Age 13 years Harsh / Rejecting Parenting Child Low Academic Attainment Interparental Conflict Aggressive Problems Parent English Math Science Perceptions of Self-Blame and Responsibility Aggressive Problems

20. Summary Children are affected by conflict across the spectrum Low warmth (silence) to high hostility (violence) Depression, aggression, anxiety, hostility, low self-esteem, low social competence, delinquency, low academic attainment Not ‘if’ conflict occurs, but ‘how’ conflict is expressed and managed by parents (couples) Conflict between parents matters for children Conflict is a salient environmental influence on children’s psychological development Importance of the child’s perspective Attributions engendered in children in the context of inter-parental conflict have long-term implications for their psychological development Implications for intervention Efficacy of parenting support programmes in the context of inter-parental conflict?? Where do we invest policy $$$ to promote positive outcomes for children? Parenting focused programmes; family-wide programmes? Application within a New Zealand Context Implications for family focused – child outcome policy and practice?