Understanding Rhetorical Analysis

1. Understanding Rhetorical Analysis and the Literature and Research Review Spring 2012 Created by Judika Webb, BA English, MA Professional Writing and Rhetoric

2. Rhetoric Defined further Rhetoric is one of the arts of using language as a means to persuade. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th Century, it was a central part of Western education, filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments. In its broadest sense, rhetoric concerns human discourse. 2

3. Your Assignment Your assignment is the Literature Review and Research Paper Please read the guidelines carefully The following slides will help you understand important terminology and concepts to complete this assignment successfully. 3

4. What is Rhetoric? Rhetoric can be defined as the Art of Persuasion 4

5. 5 “The School of Athens” Raphael 1509-1510 Vatican, Rome

6. The Academy in Athens depicted here by the artist, Raphael in his fresco “School of Athens,” 1509-1510 is in the Vatican (Rome). The Academy in Athens was the center for the study in the ancient world. Each figure is thought to be one of the many famous Philosophers of Ancient Greece. Early Philosophers studied and wrote on the art of persuasion, one of them being Aristotle (384-322 BC) a teacher at the Academy who wrote Ars Retorica (The Art of Rhetoric) Many of the ideas developed at the Academy in Athens still influence how we approach this topic today. 6

7. How are Audiences Persuaded? The speaker, writer, photographer, etc. appeals to them using the Rhetorical Appeals to the Audience: • Logos-The Logical Appeal • Pathos-The Emotional Appeal • Ethos-The Ethical Appeal 7

8. So, in other words, these appeals help to persuade an audience and all three need to work together to make an effective argument. 8

9. You must appeal to your audience! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=quH_pymfS8Q&feature=fvst Let’s watch a speaker appealing to his audience 9

10. The Logical Appeal Involves the Presentation of Evidence Imagine you are selected for jury duty in a capital murder case. You are being asked to find someone innocent or guilty of murder. What types of evidence would you need to convict or acquit a person? 10

11. Types of Evidence Show me the evidence! There are many types of evidence. Imagine all the evidence you would need to acquit or convict someone of murder. 11

12. Types of Evidence Expert Voices Example: The renowned forensic scientist, Henry Lee explaining the blood splatters found at the O. J. Simpson residence. Expert voices add credibility to an argument 12

13. Expert Voices Continued Expert Example: “How does one determine whether a law is just or unjust? A just law is a man made code that squares with the moral law or the law of God. An unjust law is a code that is out of harmony with the moral law. To put it in the terms of St. Thomas Aquinas: An unjust law is a human law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law. Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust.” (King, (1963) “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”) An expert - is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging or deciding rightly, justly, or wisely is accorded authority and status by their peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain. 13

14. Types of Evidence Testimony Example: eye witnesses to something specific I swear I heard some noises, dude 14

15. Testamony continued Testimony - form of evidence that is obtained from a witness who makes a solemn statement or declaration of fact - are eye-witness accounts, from the horse’s mouth, (consider: My last will and Testament, the New Testament, the Old Testament, etc. 15

16. This is the first time I ever did this! Weren’t you on our show last month! Types of Evidence Reference to History To Catch a Predator 16

17. Reference to History continued A reference to history is often used to demonstrate a trend, behavioral pattern or re-occurring events. In the O.J. case, several 911 tapes were introduced attempting to show a pattern of violent behavior and spousal abuse. 17

18. Other types of Evidence • Statistics • Facts • Judgments (based on facts) • Analogies (comparisons) • Anecdotes (one or a series of specific incidences) 18

19. Facts and Anecedotes A Fact is defined as something that cannot be disputed. Example: it is 78 degrees Fahrenheit at this moment. An anecdote is a short narrative (story). These are often used in advertising in the form of testimonials. For example, when a patient vouches for a particular cream that helped cure his athlete's feet, he may tell the story of how bad his feet were before and how the cream cured the menacing problem. 19

20. Consider the following: • How would Expert Voices look in an essay? • How would testimony look in an essay? • How would reference to history look in an essay? 20

21. Answer • According to Henry Lee, “the blood splatters at the O. J. residence indicate the first stab wound was inflicted near the front door entry.” • In an interview with Kato Kalin, he stated that on the night of the murder, he heard noises at the side of the house.” • Nicole Simpson, called 911 at least nine times claiming her ex husband was either behaving violently or had assaulted her. 21

22. The Ethical Appeal Revolves around the Moral Character of the Speaker • Demonstration of Goodwill • Personal Experience • Reputation • Credibility • Attitude toward the Audience http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PbUtL_0vAJk “I Have a Dream” speech 22

23. The Ethical Appeal continued • Education (Formal and informal) • Knowledge • Appearance • How the speaker/writer uses logos and • pathos • Style • Vocabulary • Choice of References • Passion • Effort 23

24. ThinkWhat made you vote for your Candidate in the last election? How did each candidate use the ethical appeal in his campaign? What presidential ads do you remember that focused on the Ethos of the Candidate? 24

25. The Emotional Appeal The attempt to persuade by appealing to the audience’s emotions; consciously planning and argument with the intent of exerting specific emotions from the audience. 25

26. Emotional Images How might these images be used to make an argument in a photostory? 26

27. The Logical Fallacies Often evidence presented in an argument are Logical Fallacies, these are often used in a court of law, in advertising, on websites, in articles, etc. Although logical fallacies are errors in reasoning, they can sway audiences, therefore, being effective. However, using these says something about one’s ethos. The following illustration is an example of the slippery slope fallacy. Event X has occurred (or will or might occur). Therefore event Y will inevitably happen. 27

28. http://www.logicalfallacies.info/ List of Logical Fallacies Identify Logical Fallacies when analyzing an argument. Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning. 28

29. What is Analysis? • problems rather than solutions • why rather than how • discovery rather than invention • critique rather than acceptance • decomposition rather than recombination • insight rather than banality (trivial) • clarity rather than confusion • open rather than closed • structure rather than disorder • people rather than machines • justification rather than assertion 29

30. Break it Down! Arguments need to be broken down so you can analyze them. Look for the little things. 30

31. What is Analysis Continued • questions rather than answers • fact rather than opinion • freedom rather than dogma (doctrine/established opinion) • depth rather than superficiality • multiple perspectives rather than one • the future rather than the past • motion rather than stasis (inactivity, motionless) • outcome rather than process • ends rather than means • rigor rather than informality • relatives rather than absolutes 31

32. Break it down some more 32

33. and just a little more 33

34. How does Rhetorical Analysis relate to writing your Research Paper In order to write an effective argument, you must be able to analyze another person’s argument. For a Literature Review you will look at each source that you are analyzing and determine its value, argument and relevance to the issue at hand. 34

35. How will you use your knowledge, experience, authority, goodwill, attitude, choice of sources, style, vocabulary, reputation and passion to establish your Ethos? 35

36. How will you move your audience? Consciously think about your audience as you write. 36

37. Let’s Review the Assignment Guidelines Together 37

38. The Literature Review/ Research Report Assignment To learn and understand how research professionals work, you will conduct both primary and secondary research on your individual topic. You will summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of the research sources alongside the data you collect. Then you will design a project and engage in the research process. The end result will be an 8-10 page literature review and primary research report based on a combination of the primary research data and the secondary sources. (Not including cover page, references, and appendices with graphs and images.) 38

39. Assignment Continued • A literature review/primary research report is more than a simple summary of sources. It has an organizational pattern that combines summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information so that it helps you address your specific research questions. A synthesis links your sources to one another and to your research questions. This document also evaluates the sources in terms of which are most relevant to the research questions and which are the most credible. Although you designed your primary research specifically to answer your questions, you’ll also want to address your own data’s relevance and its credibility. 

40. Compose • Compose: There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study. The narrower your research questions, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to answer those questions. You should propose 2-3 questions in your paper. • As you read widely but selectively in your topic area, consider what themes or issues connect your sources together—which ones are most relevant to the questions you are asking?  • Also consider if there is an involved debate on your issue? If so, this might provide you with the focus you need. • How is the subject discussed? How do different genres discuss the issue differently (or similarly)? • Have you located one solution or multiple solutions? What are their differences? • Is there an aspect of the issue that is missing or not discussed. continued.... 40

41. Design Design:As you are formulating your research questions, do some preliminary library research to see what other researchers have to say about your question. Good databases to check are ASC, JSTOR, Science Direct, PsychInfo, LexisNexis, Newspaper Source. Also check The Statistical Abstract of the United States and US Almanac for statistics. Avoid sources that you randomly found through the Web. You will need 5 sources for your paper. You may also conduct primary research, which is the collection of data or information that does not already exist in a library or website. This is original research that you design yourself by proposing a hypothesis and collecting data through questionnaires, surveys, and/or interviews that tests the hypothesis.  The more data points (answers) you have, the more robust are your findings. The easier it is for respondents to answer, the better your results will be. You can enrich survey and statistical research by including some longer interview-type questions. continued... 41

42. Design Continued • You will also need to conduct primary research, which is the collection of data or information that does not already exist in a library or website. This is original research that you design yourself in response to one or more of your research questions. You can collect data through surveys, observation, and/or interviews that answer your research question. The more data points (answers) you have, the more robust are your findings. The easier it is for respondents to answer, the better your results will be. You can enrich survey and statistical research by including some longer interview-type questions.

43. Design Continued Here is a suggestion to ensure you have the sources needed to meet the variety, number, and quality criteria in the rubric. Depending on your topic, you could have: At least 2 scholarly journal articles; At least 1 statistical resource, such as data from an official government resource or reputable organization (EPA, DOT, Census, CDC, NIH, UN, Statistical Abstract of the United States, etc.); 3 or 4 magazine or newspaper articles from high quality sources such as Business Week, National Geographic, NY Times, Chicago Tribune; 1 or 2 Broadcast media such as NPR, PBS, BBC; Specialty dictionaries and handbooks (Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, World Almanac); Your primary research; given a name and correctly cited. Do NOT cite: Wikipedia, general knowledge encyclopedias, general dictionaries, Opposing Viewpoints, Pro/Con, Current Controversies, etc.

44. Design Plan Design Plan: The genre norm for this paper is formal academic writing. The final report will be completed using APA manuscript formatting. See the model for more details. You must maintain third person voice throughout, and the sections of your literature review/primary research report should include:  Abstract  A short, one or two-paragraph summary of your research questions and your findings (no more than 150 words). You should write this last. Introduction General background information that prompted the research.  A clear statement of purpose. Stated research questions (3-4). Remember that more specific questions allow for more specific answers, and this improves the focus immensely. They must be strong enough to push the entire paper forward. A thesis statement. Review of literature (the bulk of your paper). Blend a discussion of your primary and secondary research findings into the Literature Review. Base this blend on a discussion of ideas rather than the individual sources. 44

45. Format • Format:       • The entire project should follow APA format. Pay special attention to the following: • Standard APA title page requirements. • References in alpha order, strict APA format. • Times New Roman, Arial, or Georgia style, 12 pt. font, one inch margins all around • Write in third person, present, and past tense. • Every graphic should be labeled as a Figure or a Table and given a consecutive number: Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2, etc. Caption every graphic image.

46. Key Elements Checklist • Informative, NOT argumentative. • Provide 3-4 research questions. • Include one form of primary research (interview, survey, observational). • Include one visual representation of research (chart, graph, table). • Answer your research questions with multiple perspectives.

47. Research Questions Matrix Due Feb. 24Draft Due Date March 2 Final Due March 23 47