Dr Joan Unwin

1. The versatility of bone, ivory and horn- their uses in the Sheffield cutlery industryL’utilité d’os, d’ivoire et de corne Dr Joan Unwin Archivist to the Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire Honorary Research Fellow, University of Sheffield

2. Bone, ivory and horn L’os, l’ivoire et la corne • Sheffield’s cutlery industry • Manufacturing requirements • The use of bone, ivory and horn • Archaeological evidence • Documentary evidence • Decorative cutlery handles • Summary The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

3. Blades require handles Les lames ontbesoin de manches The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

4. Sheffield’s cutlery industry L’industrie de fabrication de couteaux à Sheffield 1297 - Earliest recorded mention –‘Robert the cutler’ • 1624 - Act of Incorporation established ‘The Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire’ SHEFFIELD • The Company controlled the craftsmen who made items ‘that cut’ • Between 1624 and 1814, over 14,200 Freemen had been registered by the Company • In the 1851 Census, 9,500 men were described as ‘cutlers’ • PLUS all the subsidiary trades such as those preparing materials for handles The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

5. Manufacturing requirements Contraintes de fabrication Whittle tang knives and forks Scale tang knives and forks Spring knives and razors also require scales The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Handles have to be solid with a hole bored down the centre Handles have to be made of two flat-sided scales, attached with rivets

6. Limitations of the materials Faiblesses des matériaux Solid handles require thick, dense material ivory buffalo horn Dense bone from the long bones is too thin Scales can be made from all materials, often using scrap pieces ivory bone cattle horn buffalo horn The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 • Other handle materials include wood, pearl, tortoiseshell, stag, metals, agate, ceramics, and plastics

7. Archaeological evidence Les preuves archéologiques Excavations around Sheffield have recovered hundreds of part-finished handles, as well as scrap pieces. Almost all is bone ARCUS excavation, Morton’s site, Sheffield, 2002 The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Excavation Savile Street, 2007 York Archaeological Trust Excavation Portobello, 2009 Northampton Archaeology Excavation Upper Allen Street, ARCUS 2008

8. Reconstruction of bone working Chaine opératoire Bone ends removed Shaft is sawn to length Dense bone is sawn from around the marrow and trimmed Evidence for the use of long bones, shoulder blades and ribs, producing thin scales The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Bone samples from ARCUS sites on the Sheffield Inner Relief Road

9. Documentary evidence (1) Documents d’archives The Company’s Storehouse, 1681 stock of ivory Ivory supplied by Mr Guillams, London worth £10.10.9 (£1,403 at 2008 prices) 36 teeth [tusks] costing £67.8.9(£8,984 at 2008 prices)66 teeth and 2 parcels almost a ton in weight Sheffield probate inventories, 1680s-1740s possessions on death indicating the size of the trade in bone, ivory and horn John Shirtcliffe, a cutler, died in 1713 1000 beef bones a parcel of ivory teeth a parcel of ivory hafts unwrought George Harrison, a cutler, died in 1690 ffoure tortes knives 6 olivante spring knives3 dozen horn spring knives6 tortes knives 17 dozen of horn scalea stone and a half of horne scale 39½ lb of Tortose The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

10. Documentary evidence (2) Documents d’archives Sheffield probate inventories, 1680s-1740s possessions indicating the process of horn pressing • 1690 17 dozen horn scales • 3 dozen plain knives to press • 2 vices • a parcel of rams horn • a pressing vice • 1729 300 of horns; • 2 pressing vices and 12 pair of presses • a parcel of scales • 4 pairs of presses • a vice The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Courtesy – The Hawley Collection Trust, Sheffield

11. Documentary evidence (3) Documents d’archives Sheffield Flood, 1864 - 250 people died Evidence for bone, ivory and horn working from the claims for compensation Dale Dyke Dam. Image - PictureSheffield Examples of loss of material and tools 21 tons bone shanks £14/ton (£8,900 at 2008 prices) 4 tons bone sawings £8/ton (£5,000 at 2008 prices) bone scales auctioned for £53 (£33,700 at 2008 prices) 4,500 horn scales 700 horn cuts 8 circular saws Examples of rates of pay Claim for loss of earning because of damage to many tenement factories Ranged from 4/- to 7/- per day for bone cutters (equivalent using average earning = £127.00 to £222.00 per day at 2008 prices) The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

12. Documentary evidence (4) Documents d’archives Joseph Rodgers and Sons – early 20th century Hale Brothers warehouse book, c.1900 Images from firms’ histories warehouse ledgers trade catalogues giving information about work practices styles of handles prices The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Thomas Turner catalogue, c.1900

13. Decoration of bone, ivory and horn handles Décoration de manches en os, ivoire et corne bone ivory horn The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Examples of horn and ivory handles often survive in collections Examples of bone handles usually come from excavations

14. SummaryRésumé • the cutlery industry requirements are for solid handles and thin scales • the structure and composition of bone, ivory and horn determine use • bone appears to be the most common, providing thin scales • ivory and horn can be used for solid handles and scales • excavated finds and documentary resources indicate • work practices • supplies • costs • decorated handles surviving in collections indicate • skill • styles The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

15. Acknowledgements Remerciements Images courtesy of :The Company of Cutlers in HallamshireThe Hawley Collection Trust Picture SheffieldARCUSNorthampton Archaeology;Wessex ArchaeologyYork Archaeological Trust Unpublished material The Cutlers’ Company Storehouse records, 1680-1683; Hale Brothers book, c.1900, The Borthwick Institute, University of York Probate records, References : Lawrence H. Officer, "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present,” 2009. Joseph Rodgers ‘Under Five Sovereigns’, 1905 Thomas Turner trade catalogue, c.1900 Geoffrey Tweedale ‘The Sheffield Knife Book’, 1996 Sheffield Flood Claims Archive at http://www2.shu.ac.uk/sfca/ Picture Sheffield at http://www.picturesheffield.com The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010

16. Versatility of bone, ivory and horn L’utilité de l’os, de l’ivoire et de la corne The Versatility of Bone, Ivory and Horn ICAZ, Paris, 2010 Thank you Merci