Chapter 9 Inequalities of Gender and Sexual Orientation

1. Chapter 9 Inequalities of Gender and Sexual Orientation

2. The Problem in Sociological Perspective • Sex is the major sorting device in every society in the world. • The development of sexism as a social problem • Helen Hacker: first to apply the term minority towomen • Sexism: belief that one sex is innately superior to the other and the discrimination that results

3. The Scope of the Problem • Is male dominance universal? • Men’s domination of society has been in continuous existence throughout the globe from the earliest times to the present. • Most work is sex-typed: associated with one sex or the other • Universally, men’s activities are always given greater prestige. • It is the sex that is associated with the work that provides its prestige, not the work itself.

4. Major Areas of Discrimination • Political and legal • Education • Economic • Social • Women’s three major roles—sister/daughter, wife, and mother—fit this pattern of discrimination

5. Symbolic Interactionism • Sex: the different biological equipment of males and females • Gender: how we express our “maleness” or “femaleness” • Socialization into gender roles • Gender accomplishment • Sex is a master trait, cuttingacross all other identities in life.

6. Difficulties of interpretation • Parents teach gender roles subconsciously. • Most symbolic interactionists assume that gender differences are learned. • Stereotypes applied at birth tend to become reality through the self-fulfilling prophecy and continued socialization practices.

7. Functionalism • Two theories of male fominance • Rewards for warriors • Social—the necessity to survive warfare • Biological—innate differences in the physical strength of men and women • Reproduction • Throughout history, a woman has been encumbered physically—unable to participate fully in the labor market • Ultimate result was a patriarchal society

8. Conflict Theory • Principles of Power • Power yields privilege. • Privileged lifestyles of powerful encourage them to feel they are superior beings. • To bolster their feelings of superiority, the powerful clothe themselves with ideologies that justify their position. • As the powerful cling to their privileges, they use social institutions to maintain their power.

10. The Struggle for Equality • 1800s, almost every woman was under the legal control of a man, either a father or a husband • Suffragists: advocates of the extension of political voting rights to women • Glass Ceiling: imaginary blockade keeping women from achieving greater success in the workplace

11. Research Findings • Are there natural differences between the sexes? • Difficulty of separating culture from biology has plagued researchers • First explanation focuses on socialization in childhood • SAT: Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) • “All apparent sex differences in intelligence may be explained by early learning and continual reinforcement.” • Machismo: an overt demonstration of masculine aggression

12. Studies of animals • Testosterone: a hormone produced by the testicles that stimulates primary and secondary sex traits in men • The study of Vietnam Veterans • U.S. government collected data on hormone levels among Vietnam veterans • Further proof that testosterone plays a role in male aggression • Does not leave us with the ability to claim biology as the sole basis for aggression

13. Reconciling the findings • If biologyprovides males and females differences in temperament, personality, or predisposition in behavior, culture often overrides those differences. • Because people are often unaware of how environmental factors contribute to differences among men and women, biology presents overwhelming evidence of “natural” and “genetic” differences. • Concerning because “different sexed” often results in “unequal treatment.”

14. Avoiding ideology • No conclusive evidence as to whether nature or nurture leads to aggression, nurturing, intelligence • Must examine data with an open mind • Differences between men and women has become an emotionally charged issue • Data, not ideology, may one day answer the nature versus nurture argument

15. Everyday Life • Masculinity and machismo represent strength while femininity is perceived as weakness. • Derogatory feminine terms • Most dismiss remarks as insignificant • Such comments reveal derogatory attitude toward women and things feminine • Attitude that women face as part of their everyday lives

17. Gender tracking • Women and men tend to cluster in different educational specialties • A man’s world • Significant factor contributing to the devaluation of women is tradition • Even sociology concentrates on the contributions of men

19. Completing the doctorate • Women now outnumber men in college and earn 58% of all bachelor’s degrees. • Aspirations (enrollment) and accomplishments (doctorates conferred) are sex linked . • Core reason • Women are more likely to get sidetracked with marriage and family responsibilities • On the verge of dramatic change in education

20. The Mass Media • Children’s Books • Help to shape gender roles • Illustrated books for children are more than entertainment • Feminists protest stereotypes • One gender stereotype continues to linger in children’s books: • Females are now portrayed as doing things that males do, but males are not portrayed as doing things that females do.

21. Television • More powerful than picture books • Misogyny • Hatred or strong prejudice against women • Adult television creates and reinforces stereotypes of gender, age, and sexuality • Body image is key part of gender accomplishment • Television effective in teaching what we “should” look like

22. Music • Boys learn to dominate male–female relationships • Lyrics instruct girls to be sexy, passive, and dependent • Those who watch music videos hold more traditional sex-role stereotypes • Rap groups glorify male sexual aggression and revel in humiliating women

23. Advertising • Advertising is an insidious propaganda machine for a male supremacist society. • Television advertising continues to reinforce stereotypical gender roles. • Use of the female body—especially exposed breasts—to sell products continues. • Mass media influences us. • Shapes society’s expectations • Parents changing how they socialize their children

24. The World of Politics • The current situation • Women underrepresented in political decision making • Why don’t women dominate politics? • About 8 million more women than men are of voting age • Women who vote outnumber men who vote by 9 million • A good answer appears to be socialization

27. Dominance is masculine; politics is a form of dominance; therefore, politics is masculine. • Perception imposes severe restraints on women’s recruitment, participation, and performance in politics. • The power of sex roles • Women are underrepresented in law and business, the careers of politicians. • Irregular hours to run for elective office incompatible with home life responsibilities • Women are also less likely to have a supportive spouse. • Men have been reluctant to bring women into decision-making roles or to regard them as viable candidates. • Restrictive patterns changing

29. The World of Work • The historical pattern • Labor force participation rate • Percentage of those ages 16 and older who are in the labor force at least part-time • The gender pay gap • At all ages and at all levels of education and no matter the type of work, the average man is paid more than the average woman. • Between the ages of 25 and 65, the average man who graduates from college earns about a million dollars ($1,100,000) more than the average woman who graduates from college.

32. Reasons for the gender pay gap • Tracking in education • Women are more likely to work at types of jobs that pay less. • Women professionals, such as physicians, work fewer hours than men in same profession. • Above factors account for about half the pay gap • Other half may be attributed to pure gender discrimination • The Fuller-Schoenberger Study • Women had to have higher qualifications than men in order to be offered lower salaries!

33. Why Is Our Workforce Segregated By Sex? • The conflict and feminist perspectives • Dual Labor Market • The symbolic interactionist perspective • Men perceive women as less capable, less productive, and ultimately, less profitable, so they pay them less • Sex discrimination tends to be self-perpetuating

34. Sexual Harassment • Unsolicited sexual advances made by a person in power • Traditional view makes it a personal problem • Sexual harassment is a structural matter; built into the marketplace • Sexual harassment as a social problem • Equal Employment Opportunity Commission • Racial–ethnic lines • Used to be perceived as an exclusively female problem

35. Homosexuality • Homosexual behavior • Sexual relations between people of the same sex • Homosexuality • Sexual orientation involving an attraction or preference for people of one’s own sex • Americans more tolerant of those practicing full-time homosexuality • Women are more likely to favor the legality of homosexual relations

38. Homosexuals and the law • Lawrence et al. v. Texas • Hate crimes • Ordinary crimes motivated by dislike or hatred of the victim’s personal characteristics • Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations (2003) ban sexual discrimination in the workplace

39. Homosexuality and Conflict Theory • Overt discrimination • Differential treatment that is open and observable • Same-sex marriage (SSM) • Legally sanctioned marriage of two same-sex people • Domestic partnership or civil union • Not a legal marriage • Defense of Marriage Act

40. Research On Homosexuality • The Kinsey Research • Sample was biased and findings no longer trusted • The Laumann Research • 2.2% of women and 4.1% of men in the United States had had sex with a same-sex partner • Sampling technique allowed generalization to broader U.S. population • Narrative data • Unstructured data that tells a story

42. The Humphreys Research • Devised ingenious but, widely criticized research method • “Tea-rooms” • Situational homosexual behavior: the prison • Refers to homosexual acts committed by people who, if members of the opposite sex were available, would choose to be involved in heterosexual relations • Sociology focuses on learned behavior • Homosexuality is a social problem because of subjective concerns.

43. Violence Against Women • Rape and murder • Gendered violence • In U.S., women are disproportionately victims of spousal abuse and rape • Alien to western culture is “honor killings” • Killings of girls and women who have violated the family’s honor • Applying the conflict and feminist perspective • Understand violence against women if viewed as an expression of power

44. Symbolic Interactionism and Violence Against Women • Sociologists also use symbolic interactionism to understand gendered violence • In American culture, men learn machismo • Males are surrounded with models of violence

45. Social Policy • The Radical Extremists • Insist that society is so discriminatory that it must be restructured • The Conservative Extremists • Believe that heterosexual gender distinctions are natural and desirable and ought to be encouraged • Middle-of-the-road policies • Innumerable positions fall between two above extremes

46. The Future of the Problem • The world of work • Significant social trend that will affect gender discrimination: future employment of women • Breaking gender stereotypes • Increasing numbers of women in the workforce are already changing gender stereotypes • New orientations • Ultimate possibility for the future is a new concept of the human personality